Soya bean meal increases litter moisture and foot pad dermatitis in maize and wheat based diets for turkeys but maize and non-soya diets lower body weight.

1. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment was conducted to compare the effects of wheat or maize based diets differing in dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) on litter moisture and foot pad dermatitis (FPD) at 4, 8 and 12 weeks of age in heavy-medium turkeys. A second objective was to investigate the effects on foot pad dermatitis of the interaction between dietary composition and artificially increasing litter moisture by adding water to the litter. 2. High DEB diets contained soya as the main protein source whereas low DEB diets did not contain soya bean meal. Diets were formulated to be iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous in each of 3 successive 4-week phases following recommended dietary compositions. DEB concentrations were 330, 290 and 250 mEq/kg in high DEB diets and 230, 200 and 180 mEq/kg in low DEB diets. 3. Litter moisture and mean FPD score were higher in turkeys fed on high DEB diets compared with low DEB diets whereas there was no difference between maize and wheat. 4. Food intake was similar and body weight was lower after litter moisture was artificially raised in the wet compared with the dry litter treatment and there was no interaction with dietary composition. 5. Mean body weight and feed intake were higher in turkeys fed on wheat compared with maize and in high DEB compared with low DEB diets at 12 weeks of age. 6. Lowering dietary DEB for turkeys may improve litter moisture and lower the prevalence of FPD in commercial turkey flocks.

Identification of a practical and reliable method for the evaluation of litter moisture in turkey production.

1. An experiment was conducted to compare 5 different methods for the evaluation of litter moisture. 2. For litter collection and assessment, 55 farms were selected, one shed from each farm was inspected and 9 points were identified within each shed. 3. For each device, used for the evaluation of litter moisture, mean and standard deviation of wetness measures per collection point were assessed. 4. The reliability and overall consistency between the 5 instruments used to measure wetness were high (α = 0.72). 5. Measurement of three out of the 9 collection points were sufficient to provide a reliable assessment of litter moisture throughout the shed. 6. Based on the direct correlation between litter moisture and footpad lesions, litter moisture measurement can be used as a resource based on-farm animal welfare indicator. 7. Among the 5 methods analysed, visual scoring is the most simple and practical, and therefore the best candidate to be used on-farm for animal welfare assessment.

Effect of crude protein concentration and dietary electrolyte balance on litter quality, foot pad dermatitis, growth performance and processing yields in two medium heavy turkey hybrids.

1. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of crude protein (CP) concentration and dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) on growth performance, processing yields, litter quality and foot pad dermatitis (FPD) in male turkeys from two commercial hybrids. Soya bean meal was replaced by vegetable protein sources selected for lower K concentrations to lower DEB in order to improve litter quality and subsequent quality of foot pads. 2. Effects of CP on litter friability and wetness were not consistent during the production period. FPD in turkeys fed on diets with low CP was significantly lower than FPD in turkeys fed on diets with high CP until 84 d. Growth performance was adversely affected at low CP. Processing yields were not affected by CP. 3. Litter was significantly dryer in pens of turkeys fed on diets with low DEB than in pens of turkeys fed on diets with high DEB. FPD in turkeys fed on diets with low DEB was significantly lower than in turkeys fed on diets with high DEB. Growth performance and processing yields were adversely affected at low DEB. 4. FPD in turkey hybrid A was higher than in turkey hybrid B at 28 d of age. Thereafter, no differences in FPD between turkey hybrids were observed. Growth performance and processing yields were not affected by turkey hybrid. 5. Overall, a significant interaction effect of CP × DEB was observed for FCR: in turkeys fed on the high DEB treatment, FCR of turkeys fed on the high CP diets was lower than FCR of turkeys fed on the low CP (LCP) diets whereas on the low DEB treatment, FCR was not affected by CP treatment. 6. It was concluded that litter quality can be improved and FPD may be decreased in turkeys fed on diets containing lower CP and DEB levels.

Water scarcity hotspots travel downstream due to human interventions in the 20th and 21st century.

Water scarcity is rapidly increasing in many regions. In a novel, multi-model assessment, we examine how human interventions (HI: land use and land cover change, man-made reservoirs and human water use) affected monthly river water availability and water scarcity over the period 1971-2010. Here we show that HI drastically change the critical dimensions of water scarcity, aggravating water scarcity for 8.8% (7.4-16.5%) of the global population but alleviating it for another 8.3% (6.4-15.8%). Positive impacts of HI mostly occur upstream, whereas HI aggravate water scarcity downstream; HI cause water scarcity to travel downstream. Attribution of water scarcity changes to HI components is complex and varies among the hydrological models. Seasonal variation in impacts and dominant HI components is also substantial. A thorough consideration of the spatially and temporally varying interactions among HI components and of uncertainties is therefore crucial for the success of water scarcity adaptation by HI.

The world's road to water scarcity: shortage and stress in the 20th century and pathways towards sustainability.

Water scarcity is a rapidly growing concern around the globe, but little is known about how it has developed over time. This study provides a first assessment of continuous sub-national trajectories of blue water consumption, renewable freshwater availability, and water scarcity for the entire 20th century. Water scarcity is analysed using the fundamental concepts of shortage (impacts due to low availability per capita) and stress (impacts due to high consumption relative to availability) which indicate difficulties in satisfying the needs of a population and overuse of resources respectively. While water consumption increased fourfold within the study period, the population under water scarcity increased from 0.24 billion (14% of global population) in the 1900s to 3.8 billion (58%) in the 2000s. Nearly all sub-national trajectories show an increasing trend in water scarcity. The concept of scarcity trajectory archetypes and shapes is introduced to characterize the historical development of water scarcity and suggest measures for alleviating water scarcity and increasing sustainability. Linking the scarcity trajectories to other datasets may help further deepen understanding of how trajectories relate to historical and future drivers, and hence help tackle these evolving challenges.

Best available technology for European livestock farms: Availability, effectiveness and uptake.

Concerns over the negative environmental impact from livestock farming across Europe continue to make their mark resulting in new legislation and large research programs. However, despite a huge amount of published material and many available techniques, doubts over the success of national and European initiatives remain. Uptake of the more cost-effective and environmentally-friendly farming methods (such as dietary control, building design and good manure management) is already widespread but unlikely to be enough in itself to ensure that current environmental targets are fully met. Some of the abatement options available for intensive pig and poultry farming are brought together under the European IPPC/IED directive where they are listed as Best Available Techniques (BAT). This list is far from complete and other methods including many treatment options are currently excluded. However, the efficacies of many of the current BAT-listed options are modest, difficult to regulate and in some cases they may even be counterproductive with respect to other objectives ie pollution swapping. Evaluation of the existing and new BAT technologies is a key to a successful abatement of pollution from the sector and this in turn relies heavily on good measurement strategies. Consideration of the global effect of proposed techniques in the context of the whole farm will be essential for the development of a valid strategy.

Behavioural assessment of pain in commercial turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) with foot pad dermatitis.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the differences in susceptibility to foot pad dermatitis (FPD) of two medium-heavy lines of turkeys, and whether FPD is painful, by detailed analysis of behaviour in birds with and without analgesic treatment (betamethasone). Turkeys housed on dry litter in the first experiment generally had more frequent bouts of different behaviours that were of shorter duration than birds on wet litter. T-patterns (behavioural sequences) were more frequent, varied and complex on dry than on wet litter. Betamethasone-injected birds of line B, but not breed A, had shorter resting and longer standing durations on wet litter than saline-injected birds. In the second experiment, turkeys on wet litter given saline stood less and rested more than all other treatment groups, suggesting that they experienced pain that was alleviated in birds receiving betamethasone. Turkeys on dry litter had more frequent, varied and complex patterns of behaviour than turkeys on wet litter and birds kept on intermediate litter wetness. Betamethasone provision increased pattern variety regardless of litter treatment. Turkeys with low FPD scores transferred to wet litter and given saline injections had a longer total duration of resting and shorter duration of standing compared to betamethasone-treated birds. Low FPD birds transferred to wet litter had a similar number of patterns and total pattern occurrence as high FPD birds transferred to dry litter. Betamethasone increased pattern variety and frequency compared to saline injections whereas overall pattern complexity was similar. It was concluded that wet litter affects the behaviour of turkey poults independently of FPD and that betamethasone may also change the behaviour of turkeys. There was some evidence from analgesic treatment and T-pattern analyses that FPD was painful. However, there was no evidence of differences in susceptibility to FPD of the two commercial hybrids.

Footpad dermatitis and pain assessment in turkey poults using analgesia and objective gait analysis.

The relationships between litter moisture, footpad dermatitis (FPD) and pain in medium-heavy turkey strains was studied by gait analysis in two medium-heavy with and without analgesia (betamethasone or bupivacaine). The relationship between FPD and litter moisture was linear above a breakpoint of 49% litter moisture, and there were no differences between the two breeds in susceptibility to FPD. Gait analysis showed higher impulse, single support time, stride time and stance time in breed A compared to breed B. Significant interactions between breed, litter and analgesic for impulse, single support time and stride time were associated with higher means for breed A given saline injection on wet litter. Data from betamethasone analgesia in Experiments 1 and 3 were combined for analysis. Peak vertical force was higher in saline- compared to betamethasone-treated birds. Compared to the wet (high FPD) litter treatments, birds on dry (low FPD) litter had greater speed and lower double support time and longer stride length. Turkeys kept on wet litter had a longer stride length compared to dry litter when given saline, whereas in betamethasone-treated birds the means were similar. There were no differences between birds with or without bupivacaine analgesia. Peak vertical force was higher in breed A than B and in birds with a low FPD compared to a high FPD score. It was concluded that breeds A and B did not differ in susceptibility to develop FPD when housed on wet litter but may have natural gait differences. Significant changes in gait parameters were associated with wet litter and with analgesic treatments. The results showed that FPD affected the gait of the turkeys and, combined with evidence of behavioural changes when given analgesia, suggest that footpad lesions are painful.

Effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge.

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge. The experiment was carried out with a total of eighty-day-old male Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar chukar) chicks in a completely randomized design. The dietary treatments consisted of a control and an experimental treatment, and each treatment was replicated four times with 10 chicks per replicate. The experimental period lasted 16 weeks with a starter period (0-8 weeks) and a grower period (9-16 weeks). The control group was fed the basal diet, while the experimental group was fed the basal diet supplemented with 0.18% prebiotic Aspergillus meal in each period. Performance parameters included body weight gain, cumulative feed consumption and cumulative FCR and were recorded at biweekly intervals. Carcass characteristics and blood parameters were measured at the end of the experiment (week 16). Although the results showed that prebiotic had no significant effect on body weight gain and cumulative feed conversion ratio; however, the supplementation of Aspergillus meal significantly (p < 0.05) decreased cumulative feed consumption. Also prebiotic significantly increased percentages of breast and gastrointestinal tract, decreased percentage of back-neck, decreased blood triglyceride and total cholesterol content and increased blood calcium content. From this study, it was concluded that dietary supplementation of 0.18% Aspergillus meal might offer beneficial effects on partridge feed consumption, carcass quality and blood cholesterol.

Effect of thymol and carvacrol feed supplementation on performance, antioxidant enzyme activities, fatty acid composition, digestive enzyme activities, and immune response in broiler chickens.

This trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of phytogenic product containing an equal mixture of thymol and carvacrol at 4 levels (0, 60, 100, and 200 mg/kg of diet) on performance, antioxidant enzyme activities, fatty acid composition, digestive enzyme activities, and immune response in broiler chickens. Each of the 4 diets was fed to 5 replicates of 12 chicks each from d 0 to 42. The inclusion of thymol + carvacrol linearly decreased (P < 0.05) feed intake, but the highest (P < 0.05) BW gain (ADG) and feed efficiency was observed in broilers offered 200 mg/kg of phytogenic product. The phytogenic product linearly increased (P < 0.05) superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities and decreased (P < 0.05) malondialdehyde level in thigh muscle at d 42 and serum and liver at d 24 and 42. Total saturated fatty acids were depressed (P < 0.05) and total polyunsaturated fatty acid and n-6 were linearly increased (P < 0.05) in serum and thigh by the inclusion of phytogenic product compared with the control diet. Supplementation with thymol + carvacrol also increased intestinal and pancreatic trypsin, lipase, and protease activities in 24-d-old (linear, P < 0.05) but not in 42-d-old birds. Thymol + carvacrol modified (linear, P < 0.05) immune response by increasing hypersensitivity response, total and IgG anti-sheep red blood cell titers, and decreasing heterophil to lymphocyte ratio compared with the control group. However, hematological parameters and lymphoid organ weight were not affected by thymol + carvacrol. Thus, feed supplementation with thymol + carvacrol enhanced performance, increased antioxidant enzyme activities, retarded lipid oxidation, enhanced digestive enzyme activities, and improved immune response of broilers.

Effect of four processed animal proteins in the diet on digestibility and performance in laying hens.

An experiment was performed to investigate the effect of animal vs. vegetable protein sources in the diet of laying hens on the development of hen performance. A diet containing protein sources of only vegetable origin was compared with 4 diets, each containing 1 of 4 processed animal proteins (PAP). Two PAP (Daka-58 and Sonac-60) were classified as meat meals, and the remaining 2 (Daka-40 and Sonac-50) were classified as meat and bone meals. First, fecal digestibility of nutrients in the PAP was determined in Lohmann Brown layers. Hens (n = 132) were housed in 22 cages (6 hens/cage) and allotted to 5 dietary treatments. In the PAP diets (4 replicates/treatment), 100 g/kg of CP of animal origin was added, replacing soybean meal and corn (Zea mays) in the basal diet (6 replicates/treatment). The PAP sources differed largely in chemical composition and digestibility coefficients. Energy content (AME(n)) varied from 1,817 (Daka-40) to 3,107 kcal/kg (Sonac-60), and digestible lysine varied from 15.4 (Daka-40) to 28.3 g/kg (Sonac-50). Subsequently, the effect of a control diet (without PAP) vs. 4 PAP diets (50 g/kg of CP of animal origin from the same batches as used in the digestibility study) on performance was determined. All diets were isocaloric (AME(n) = 2,825 kcal/kg) and isonitrogenous (digestible lysine = 6.8 g/kg). Hens were housed in 40 floor pens (12 hens/pen, 8 pens/treatment) from 20 to 40 wk of age. Feed intake levels of the hens fed the meat and bone meal diets were reduced compared with those of hens fed the meat meal diets, whereas the feed intake level of hens fed the control diet was intermediate. Laying hen performance differed between treatments, being was most favorable for the Sonac-50 treatment and most adverse for the Daka-40 treatment. Differences in laying hen performance seemed to be related partly to differences in feed intake and corresponding amino acid intake.

Growth responses to dietary energy and lysine at high and low ambient temperature in male turkeys.

The effects of ambient temperature (T; 18 vs. 28 degrees C), dietary energy level [E; 90, 100, and 110% of NRC (1994) recommendations], and dietary lysine level [LYS; 105 vs. 120% of NRC (1994) recommendations], and their interactions on feed intake, BW gain, feed:gain ratio, and carcass yields of male turkeys were studied from 29 to 140 d of age. The experiment was designed as a split plot, including T as the main plot and E and LYS as the subplot, with 60 pens containing 10 male turkeys each. Overall, feed intake, BW gain, and feed:gain ratio were significantly lower at high compared with low T. Feed intake decreased linearly as E increased and was more pronounced at low compared with high T. Metabolizable energy intake increased more at high compared with low T as E increased. Turkeys that were fed the highest E gained less weight until 84 d of age than those fed the lowest E. Dietary lysine was not the limiting amino acid because birds showed no response to extra lysine. Feed:gain decreased linearly as E level increased. Until 84 d of age, feed:gain decreased more at low compared with high T as E level increased. Breast meat yields were lower, and thigh, drum, and wing yields were higher at high than at low T. The highest E resulted in lower cold carcass yields, and breast meat yields, and higher thigh and drum yields than the lowest E. Dietary lysine level did not affect carcass yield. The results imply that when dietary lysine levels are adequate, dietary energy may be increased above NRC (1994) to improve feed efficiency, but some of the limiting amino acids after lysine may be increased in high-density diets to optimize breast meat yield. Particularly at high temperature in the period after 16 wk of age, dietary energy contents may be increased to at least 110% of NRC (1994) because turkeys will need more energy to dissipate heat.

Growth responses to dietary lysine at high and low ambient temperature in male turkeys.

Several researchers have postulated that dietary lysine requirements for turkeys are dependent upon ambient temperature. To test and quantify this hypothesis, a factorial experiment was designed with four dietary lysine levels (75, 90, 105, and 120% of NRC lysine recommendations) from 1 d of age onward and two ambient temperatures (15 vs. 30 degrees C) from 4 wk of age onward. Growth performance and carcass yields were measured, and requirements were derived from the fitted exponential response curves at 95% of the maximum possible response above that of the basal diet. In the entire experiment no significant interaction effects between temperature and lysine were observed for feed intake, BW gain, and feed:gain ratio. Exponential curves gave a very good fit (R2 > 0.89) for feed intake, and BW gain responses to dietary lysine concentrations in all age intervals. The dietary lysine requirement was estimated to be 1.67 +/- 0.09%, 1.19 +/- 0.13%, 1.08%, and 0.94 +/- 0.35% from 29 to 56 d, 57 to 84 d, 85 to 114 d, and 115 to 140 d of age, respectively. High temperature decreased all absolute processing yields in kilograms but relative cold carcass yield and relative yields of thighs, drums, and wings were increased by high temperature. Relative breast meat yield and abdominal fat were decreased by high temperature. Turkeys at low temperature responded with more breast meat to high lysine than at high temperature.

Effects of ambient temperature, arginine-to-lysine ratio, and electrolyte balance on performance, carcass, and blood parameters in commercial male turkeys.

The effects of ambient temperature (T; 15 C vs. 30 C from 6 wk of age onwards), dietary Arg:Lys ratio (Arg:Lys ratio; 1.00 vs. 1.25), dietary electrolyte balance (DEB: 164 vs. 254 meq/kg), and their interactions on growth performance and carcass yields of male turkeys were studied. The experiment was designed as a split plot, including T x DEB as the main plot and Arg:Lys ratio as the sub-plot, with 24 pens containing 35 male turkeys each. Feed consumption, BW gain, mortality, and processing yields were measured. Temperature had a clear effect on performance during all age periods. Feed intake was significantly lower for the high T group compared with the low T group (322.7 vs. 432.3 g/bird per day; P < 0.001). Consequently, BW gain during the experimental period (28 to 140 d of age) was significantly lower for the high T group compared with the low T group (14.54 vs. 18.74 kg; P < 0.001). Feed:gain during the period of 28 to 140 d of age was significantly lower for the high T group compared with the low T group (2.51 vs. 2.61; P < 0.001). The high dietary Arg:Lys ratio increased feed intake significantly until 56 d of age (200.6 vs. 197.6; P < or = 0.034). A high Arg:Lys ratio resulted in significantly higher BW gain until 98 d of age (10.03 vs. 9.84 kg; P < or = 0.024). The Arg:Lys ratio did not affect feed:gain throughout the experiment. Dietary electrolyte balance did not affect performance parameters. No consistent two- or three-way interactions were observed. Processing yields were only affected significantly by T, and not by Arg:Lys ratio or DEB main effects. High T resulted in lower cold carcass (73.2 vs. 74.9%) and breast meat yields (33.5 vs. 36.0%), and higher thigh (18.9 vs. 18.1%), drumstick (14.5 vs. 13.2%), and wing yields (11.7 vs. 10.6%) compared with low T. We concluded that growth performance is compromised by higher T, and altering the Arg:Lys ratio or DEB does not alleviate this impaired performance. Dietary Arg levels seem to be important when dietary Lys is marginal relative to the requirement.

Interaction between ambient temperature and supplementation of synthetic amino acids on performance and carcass parameters in commercial male turkeys.

An experiment with male turkeys was conducted to test the hypothesis that turkey production performance responds positively to extra crystalline amino acid supplementation (lysine, methionine, and threonine) when subjected to a high ambient temperature regimen (HT) in the grower period. Two diets were formulated to provide lysine, methionine, and threonine concentrations that either 1) met the breeder recommendations or 2) contained 10% higher lysine and methionine concentrations from 22 to 134 d of age and 10% higher threonine concentration from 22 to 68 d of age. Both diets were fed at two temperatures (15 or 25 C) from 42 d of age onward. At 134 d of age, turkeys on the HT had generally lower BW than those on the low temperature regimen (LT). Up to 68 d of age and from 106 to 134 d of age, feed intake of turkeys on the HT was significantly lower than that of turkeys on the LT. Up to 42 d of age, feed conversion ratio (FCR) of turkeys on the HT were significantly lower than those of turkeys on the LT. Significant treatment interactions were observed from 22 to 41 d of age. Turkeys fed the amino acid-supplemented diets on the LT had significantly reduced FCR, whereas those on the HT did not respond. From 69 to 105 d of age, turkeys on the HT that were fed the supplemented diets had significantly increased FCR, but there were no dietary effects among turkeys on the LT. There were no consistent diet effects on growth performance or carcass yields. Breast meat yields of turkeys on the LT were higher (33.5 vs 32.1%), and drum yields were lower (12.7 vs 13.0%), than those of turkeys on the HT. There were no significant amino acid balance x ambient temperature effects on processing yields. The hypothesis of this experiment could be rejected as production performance did not respond positively to extra supplementation of lysine, methionine, and threonine when subjected to an HT.