Simultaneous post-neurosurgical ventriculitis and bacteraemia by two different strains of KPC-producing K. pneumoniae successfully treated with meropenem/vaborbactam and high dose of fosfomycin.

OBJECTIVE: A case of post-neurosurgical ventriculitis caused by a KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (KPC-Kp) with a ceftazidime/avibactam-resistant, meropenem-susceptible phenotype is reported. METHODS AND RESULTS: The patient had a concomitant bloodstream infection with a wild-type KPC-Kp with a ceftazidime/avibactam-susceptible, meropenem-resistant phenotype. Prolonged treatment with intravenous fosfomycin and meropenem/vaborbactam achieved clinical success. Therapeutic drug monitoring performed during the first days of treatment showed for the first time that vaborbactam efficiently penetrates cerebrospinal fluid. In contrast, meropenem was undetectable in cerebrospinal fluid at each sampling, suggesting that additional doses of meropenem may be required to appropriately prescribe meropenem/vaborbactam for central nervous system infections. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels of fosfomycin were adequate, confirming the potential of this agent possibly even in the fight against multidrug-resistant organisms. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the need for therapeutic drug monitoring as a crucial tool for optimizing treatment in complicated cases where the pharmacokinetic behaviour of antibiotics is difficult to predict.

Did the updated Duke criteria missed Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae from the list of typical microorganisms causing infective endocarditis?

Infectious endocarditis is a severe condition still characterized by a high morbidity and mortality rate. An early diagnosis may positively impact the outcome, so we need our diagnostic tools to match with the ever-changing epidemiologic and microbiologic landscape of infectious diseases. We read with great interest the update to the Modified Duke Criteria for the diagnosis of Infectious Endocarditis recently proposed by the International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Diseases and decided to propose the addition of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae to the list of typical microorganisms causing Endocarditis. This pathogen is widespread distributed in the world, has a zoonotic origin, harbors virulence factors and a multidrug resistance phenotype. Moreover, its retrieval from blood seems to have an important correlation with the presence of Endocarditis. The inclusion of E. rhusiopathiae in the list of typical microorganisms may represent a further refinement of the Modified Duke Criteria, which represent a fundamental tool in the management of patients with suspected endocarditis.

New Antimicrobials and New Therapy Strategies for Endocarditis: Weapons That Should Be Defended.

The overall low-quality evidence concerning the clinical benefits of different antibiotic regimens for the treatment of infective endocarditis (IE), which has made it difficult to strongly support or reject any regimen of antibiotic therapy, has led to a discrepancy between the available guidelines and clinical practice. In this complex scenario, very recently published guidelines have attempted to fill this gap. Indeed, in recent years several antimicrobials have entered the market, including ceftobiprole, ceftaroline, and the long-acting lipoglycopeptides dalbavancin and oritavancin. Despite being approved for different indications, real-world data on their use for the treatment of IE, alone or in combination, has accumulated over time. Furthermore, an old antibiotic, fosfomycin, has gained renewed interest for the treatment of complicated infections such as IE. In this narrative review, we focused on new antimicrobials and therapeutic strategies that we believe may provide important contributions to the advancement of Gram-positive IE treatment, providing a summary of the current in vitro, in vivo, and clinical evidence supporting their use in clinical practice.

Reduced Reliability of Procalcitonin (PCT) as a Biomarker of Bacterial Superinfection: Concerns about PCT-Driven Antibiotic Stewardship in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients-Results from a Retrospective Observational Study in Intensive Care Units.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to assess whether procalcitonin levels is a diagnostic tool capable of accurately identifying sepsis and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) even in critically ill COVID-19 patients. METHODS: In this retrospective, observational study, all critically ill COVID-19 patients who survived for ≥2 days in a single university hospital and had at least one serum procalcitonin (PCT) value and associated blood culture and/or culture from a lower respiratory tract specimen available were eligible for the study. RESULTS: Over the research period, 184 patients were recruited; 67 VAP/BSI occurred, with an incidence rate of 21.82 episodes of VAP/BSI (95% CI: 17.18-27.73) per 1000 patient-days among patients who were included. At the time of a positive microbiological culture, an average PCT level of 1.25-3.2 ng/mL was found. Moreover, also in subjects without positive cultures, PCT was altered in 21.7% of determinations, with an average value of 1.04-5.5 ng/mL. Both PCT and PCT-72 h were not linked to a diagnosis of VAP/BSI in COVID-19 patients, according to the multivariable GEE models (aOR 1.13, 95% CI 0.51-2.52 for PCT; aOR 1.32, 95% CI 0.66-2.64 for PCT-72 h). CONCLUSION: Elevated PCT levels might not always indicate bacterial superinfections or coinfections in a severe COVID-19 setting.

A protocol for an international, multicentre pharmacokinetic study for Screening Antifungal Exposure in Intensive Care Units: The SAFE-ICU study.

Objective: To describe whether contemporary dosing of antifungal drugs achieves therapeutic exposures in critically ill patients that are associated with optimal outcomes. Adequate antifungal therapy is a key determinant of survival of critically ill patients with fungal infections. Critical illness can alter an antifungal agents' pharmacokinetics, increasing the risk of inappropriate antifungal exposure that may lead to treatment failure and/or toxicity. Design setting and participants: This international, multicentre, observational pharmacokinetic study will comprise adult critically ill patients prescribed antifungal agents including fluconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, isavuconazole, caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin, and amphotericin B for the treatment or prophylaxis of invasive fungal disease. A minimum of 12 patients are targeted for enrolment for each antifungal agent, across 12 countries and 30 intensive care units to perform descriptive pharmacokinetics. Pharmacokinetic sampling will occur during two dosing intervals (occasions): firstly, between days 1 and 3, and secondly, between days 4 and 7 of the antifungal course, collecting three samples per occasion. Patients' demographic and clinical data will be collected. Main outcome measures: The primary endpoint of the study is attainment of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target exposures that are associated with optimal efficacy. Thirty-day mortality will also be measured. Results and conclusions: This study will describe whether contemporary antifungal drug dosing achieves drug exposures associated with optimal outcomes. Data will also be used for the development of antifungal dosing algorithms for critically ill patients. Optimised drug dosing should be considered a priority for improving clinical outcomes for critically ill patients with fungal infections.

Risk factors for carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) bloodstream infections and related mortality in critically ill patients with CRAB colonization.

Background: Among MDR bacteria, carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) is a major concern due to the limited therapeutic options. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a worrying increase in the spread of CRAB infections was reported. Objectives: The study assessed the risk factors for CRAB bloodstream infection (BSI) in patients admitted to the ICU with CRAB colonization, and the related mortality risk factors. Methods: We conducted a single-centre, observational, prospective study; all consecutive patients with CRAB colonization admitted to the ICU of a tertiary hospital in Rome from January 2021 to September 2022 were included in the study. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to investigate BSI and mortality risk factors. Results: Overall, 129 patients were included in the study; 57 (44%) out of these developed BSI. In our study population, at the multivariable analysis the Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) (P = 0.026), COVID-19 (P < 0.001), multisite colonization (P = 0.016) and the need for mechanical ventilation (P = 0.024) were risk factors independently associated with BSI development. Furthermore, age (P = 0.026), CCI (P < 0.001), septic shock (P = 0.001) and Pitt score (P < 0.001) were independently associated with mortality in the BSI patients. Instead, early appropriate therapy (P = 0.002) and clinical improvement within 72 h (P = 0.011) were shown to be protective factors. Conclusions: In critically ill patients colonized by CRAB, higher CCI, multisite colonization and the need for mechanical ventilation were identified as risk factors for BSI onset. These predictors could be useful to identify patients at highest risk of BSI.

Invasive Candida infection: epidemiology, clinical and therapeutic aspects of an evolving disease and the role of rezafungin.

INTRODUCTION: Invasive Candida Infections (ICIs) have undergone a series of significant epidemiological, pathophysiological, and clinical changes during the last decades, with a shift toward non-albicans species, an increase in the rate of exogenous infections and clinical manifestations ranging from candidemia to an array of highly invasive and life-threatening clinical syndromes. The long-acting echinocandin rezafungin exhibits potent in-vitro activity against most wild-type and azole-resistant Candida spp. including C.auris. AREAS COVERED: The following topics regarding candidemia only and ICIs were reviewed and addressed: i) pathogenesis; ii) epidemiology and temporal evolution of Candida species; iii) clinical approach; iv) potential role of the novel long-acting rezafungin in the treatment of ICIs. EXPERT OPINION: Authors' expert opinion focused on considering the potential role of rezafungin in the evolving context of ICIs. Rezafungin, which combines a potent in-vitro activity against Candida species, including azole-resistant strains and C.auris, with a low likelihood of drug-drug interactions and a good safety profile, may revolutionize the treatment of candidemia/ICI. Indeed, it may shorten the length of hospital stays when clinical conditions allow and extend outpatient access to treatment of invasive candidiasis, especially when prolonged treatment duration is expected.

Clinical Characteristics and Outcome of Ceftazidime/Avibactam-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae Infections: A Retrospective, Observational, 2-Center Clinical Study.

Background: Recently, Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (KPC-Kp) with resistance to ceftazidime/avibactam (CZA-R) has been described, including KPC variants that restore carbapenem susceptibility. The aim of the study was to analyze the clinical characteristics and outcomes of infections caused by CZA-R KPC-Kp. Methods: From 2019 to 2021, a retrospective 2-center study including patients with infections due to CZA-R KPC-Kp hospitalized at 2 academic hospitals in Rome was conducted. Demographic and clinical characteristics were collected. Principal outcome was 30-day all-cause mortality. Statistical analyses were performed with Stata-IC17 software. Results: Overall, 59 patients were included (mean age, 64.4 ± 14.6 years; mean Charlson comorbidity index score, 4.5 ± 2.7). Thirty-four patients (57.6%) had infections caused by CZA-R and meropenem (MEM)-susceptible strains. A previous CZA therapy was observed in 40 patients (67.8%), mostly in patients with MEM-susceptible KPC variant (79.4% vs 52%, P = .026). Primary bacteremia was observed in 28.8%, followed by urinary tract infections and pneumonia. At infection onset, septic shock was present in 15 subjects (25.4%). After adjustment for confounders, only the presence of septic shock was independently associated with mortality (P = .006). Conclusions: Infections due to CZA-R KPC-Kp often occur in patients who had previously received CZA, especially in the presence of strains susceptible to MEM. Nevertheless, one-third of patients had never received CZA before KPC-Kp CZA-R. Since the major driver for mortality was infection severity, understanding the optimal therapy in patients with KPC-Kp CZA-R infections is of crucial importance.

First case of persistent Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteraemia due to septic thrombosis successfully treated with a cefiderocol-containing regimen.

INTRODUCTION: There is scarce evidence in literature of what should be the best antimicrobial treatment for bloodstream infections (BSIs) sustained by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, a peculiar pathogen that intrinsically withstands to most of the available antibiotics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Here, we describe a challenging case of a persistent S. maltophilia BSI due to septic thrombosis successfully treated with the addition of the novel siderophore cephalosporin cefiderocol to an only partially effective levofloxacin regimen. Additionally, an intra-lock therapy with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole was selected as a strategy to prevent recurrence of infection since complete source control was not possible. The serum bactericidal assay was also used to corroborate the in vivo efficacy of the adopted combination therapy.

Direct or early Discharge of Acute Bacterial Skin and Skin Structure Infection patients from the Emergency Department/Unit: place in therapy of dalbavancin.

INTRODUCTION: Acute Bacterial Skin and Skin Structure Infections (ABSSSIs) are a common reason of Emergency Department (ED) access and account for a considerable number of hospital admissions and a high economic burden for the healthcare system. The long-acting lipoglycopeptides (LALs) allow for an outpatient management of subjects with ABSSSIs, still requiring parenteral therapy, but who do not need hospitalization. AREAS COVERED: The following topics were addressed: i) microbiological activity, efficacy, and safety of dalbavancin, ii) critical steps for the management of ABSSSIs in the ED (decision to hospitalize, risk of bacteremia and infection recurrence), iii) feasibility of direct/early discharge from the ED and potential advantage of dalbavancin. EXPERT OPINION: Authors' expert opinion was focused on drawing the profiles of patients who could benefit most from an antimicrobial therapy with dalbavancin in the ED and positioning this drug as a direct or early discharge strategy from the ED in order to avoid hospitalization and its complications. We have provided a therapeutic and diagnostic algorithm based on evidence from the literature and authors' expert opinion and suggest the use of dalbavancin in patients with ABSSSIs who are not eligible for oral therapies or Outpatient Parenteral Antibiotic Therapy (OPAT) programs and who would have otherwise been hospitalized only for antibiotic therapy.

Chronic Suppressive Antibiotic Treatment for Staphylococcal Bone and Joint Implant-Related Infections.

Prosthetic joint infection (PJI) and fracture-related infection (FRI) are difficult-to-treat conditions in patients with severe comorbidity or significant surgical risk. In cases not eligible for standard strategy, debridement procedures with the retention of prosthesis or internal fixation device, combined with long-term antibiotic treatment and subsequent indefinite chronic oral antimicrobial suppression (COAS), can be the only reasonable choice. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of COAS and its follow-up in the management of these cases. We retrospectively analyzed a cohort of 16 patients with a follow-up of at least 6 months (mean age 75 yo, 9F, 7M, 11 PJI, 5 FRI). All microbiological isolates were tetracycline-susceptible staphylococci and for this reason a minocycline-based COAS was adopted after debridement and 3 months of antibiogram-guided antibiotic treatment. Patient monitoring was carried out on a clinical basis, with bimonthly execution of the inflammation indices and serial radiolabeled leukocyte scintigraphy (LS). The overall median time of COAS follow-up was 15 months (min 6-max 30). Moreover, 62.5% of patients were still taking COAS with no relapse after cure at the last evaluation available. Clinical failure with a relapse of the infection was observed in 37.5% of patients; interestingly, 50% of them had previously stopped COAS due to side effects of the antibiotic used. In the COAS follow-up, a combination of clinical, laboratory and LS evaluation seems to monitor the infection properly. COAS can be considered as an interesting approach in patients not suitable for standard treatments of PJI or FRI but it requires careful monitoring.

Outcome of COVID-19 patients with haematological malignancies after the introduction of vaccination and monoclonal antibodies: results from the HM-COV 2.0 study.

Patients with haematological malignancies (HM) and SARS-CoV-2 infection present a higher risk of severe COVID-19 and mortality. The aim of the study was to investigate whether vaccination and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have modified the outcomes of HM patients with COVID-19. This is a single-centre retrospective study in HM patients hospitalized due to SARS-CoV-2 infection from March 2020 to April 2022. Patients were divided into PRE-V-mAb group (patients hospitalized before the introduction of vaccination and mAbs) and POST-V-mAb group (patients hospitalized after the use of vaccine and mAbs). A total of 126 patients were included (65 PRE-V-mAb and 61 POST-V-mAb). POST-V-mAb patients showed a significantly lower risk of intensive care unit (ICU) admission (8.2% vs. 27.7%, p = 0.005), shorter viral shedding [17 (IQR 10-28) vs. 24 days (IQR 15-50), p = 0.011] and shorter hospitalization length [13 (IQR 7-23) vs. 20 (IQR 14-41) days, p = 0.0003] compared to the PRE-V-mAb group. Nevertheless, both in-hospital and 30-day mortality rates did not significantly differ between the two groups (29.5% POST-V-mAb vs. 36.9% PRE-V-mAb and 21.3% POST-V-mAb vs. 29.2% PRE-V-mAb, respectively). At the multivariable analysis, an active malignancy (p = 0.042), a critical COVID-19 at admission (p = 0.025) and the need for high-level of oxygen support at respiratory worsening [either HFNC/CPAP (p = 0.022) or mechanical ventilation (p = 0.011)] were independently associated with in-hospital mortality. In the subgroup of POST-V-mAb patients, receiving therapy with mAbs was a protective factor (p = 0.033). Despite the new therapeutic and preventive strategies available, HM patients with COVID-19 disease represent an extremely vulnerable group with still high mortality rates.

Mortality Attributable to Bloodstream Infections Caused by Different Carbapenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli: Results From a Nationwide Study in Italy (ALARICO Network).

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to analyze mortality attributable to carbapenem-resistant (CR) gram-negative bacilli (GNB) in patients with bloodstream infections (BSIs). METHODS: Prospective multicentric study including patients with GNB-BSI from 19 Italian hospitals (June 2018-January 2020). Patients were followed-up to 30 days. Primary outcomes were 30-day mortality and attributable mortality. Attributable mortality was calculated in the following groups: Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing Enterobacterales, metallo-ß-lactamases (MBL)-producing Enterobacterales, CR-Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA), CR-Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB). A multivariable analysis with hospital fixed-effect was built to identify factors associated with 30-day mortality. Adjusted OR (aORs) were reported. Attributable mortality was calculated according to the DRIVE-AB Consortium. RESULTS: Overall, 1276 patients with monomicrobial GNB BSI were included: 723/1276 (56.7%) carbapenem-susceptible (CS)-GNB, 304/1276 (23.8%) KPC-, 77/1276 (6%) MBL-producing CRE, 61/1276 (4.8%) CRPA, and 111/1276 (8.7%) CRAB BSI. Thirty-day mortality in patients with CS-GNB BSI was 13.7% compared to 26.6%, 36.4%, 32.8% and 43.2% in patients with BSI by KPC-CRE, MBL-CRE, CRPA and CRAB, respectively (P < .001). On multivariable analysis, age, ward of hospitalization, SOFA score, and Charlson Index were factors associated with 30-day mortality, while urinary source of infection and early appropriate therapy resulted protective factors. Compared to CS-GNB, MBL-producing CRE (aOR 5.86, 95% CI 2.72-12.76), CRPA (aOR 1.99, 95% CI 1.48-5.95) and CRAB (aOR 2.65, 95% CI 1.52-4.61) were significantly associated with 30-day mortality. Attributable mortality rates were 5% for KPC-, 35% for MBL, 19% for CRPA, and 16% for CRAB. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with BSIs, carbapenem-resistance is associated with an excess of mortality, with MBL-producing CRE carrying the highest risk of death.

Acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections in pediatric patients: potential role of dalbavancin.

INTRODUCTION: Acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSIs) are a subtype of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI), usually sustained by Gram-positive bacteria, whose incidence is high among children. ABSSSIs are responsible for a considerable number of hospitalizations. Moreover, as multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens become widespread, the pediatric category seems burdened with an increased risk of resistance and treatment failure. AREAS COVERED: To obtain a view on the status of the field, we describe the clinical, epidemiological, and microbiological aspects of ABSSSI in children. Old and new treatment options were critically revised with a focus on the pharmacological characteristics of dalbavancin. Evidence on the use of dalbavancin in children was collected, analyzed, and summarized. EXPERT OPINION: Many of the therapeutic options available at the moment are characterized by the need for hospitalization or repeated intravenous infusions, safety issues, possible drug-drug interactions, and reduced efficacy on MDRs. Dalbavancin, the first long-acting molecule with strong activity against methicillin-resistant and also many vancomycin-resistant pathogens represents a game changer for adult ABSSSI. In pediatric settings, the available literature is still limited, but a growing body of evidence supports dalbavancin use in children with ABSSSI, demonstrating this drug to be safe and highly efficacious.

Association between PaO2/FiO2 ratio and thrombotic events in COVID-19 patients.

PaO2/FiO2 (P/F ratio) is considered a marker of hypoxia/hypoxemia and mortality. Several prothrombotic changes are associated with the decrease of P/F ratio. The role of P/F ratio in patients with arterial and venous thrombosis remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the association between P/F ratio and arterial/venous thrombosis. One thousand and four hundred and six COVID-19 patients were recruited; 289 (21%) patients had P/F ratio < 200 and 1117 (79%) ≥ 200. Compared to the patients with P/F ratio ≥ 200, those with P/F ratio < 200 were older and with higher levels of glycemia, D-dimer and lower levels of albumin. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that albumin (standardized coefficient ß:  0.156; SE: 0.001; p = 0.0001) and D-dimer (standardized coefficient ß: -0.135; SE: 0.0001; p = 0.0001) were associated with P/F ratio. During the hospitalization 159 patients were transferred in intensive care unit (ICU), 253 patients died, 156 patients had arterial or venous thrombotic events. A bivariate logistic analysis was performed to analyze the predictors of thrombosis in COVID-19 patients; P/F ratio < 200 (Odds Ratio: [OR] 1.718, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 1.085-2.718, p = 0.021), albumin (OR 1.693, 95% CI 1.055-2.716, p = 0.029), D-dimer (OR 3.469, 95% CI 2.110-5.703, p < 0.0001), coronary artery disease (CAD) (OR 1.800, 95% CI 1.086-2.984, p = 0.023) and heart failure (OR 2.410 95% CI 1.385-4.193, p = 0.002) independently predicted thrombotic events in this population. This study suggests that the P/F ratio is associated with thrombotic events by promoting a hypercoagulation state in patients hospitalized for COVID-19.

Risk factors and effect on mortality of superinfections in a newly established COVID-19 respiratory sub-intensive care unit at University Hospital in Rome.

BACKGROUND: Little is known on the burden of co-infections and superinfections in a specific setting such as the respiratory COVID-19 sub-intensive care unit. This study aims to (i) assess the prevalence of concurrent and superinfections in a respiratory sub-intensive care unit, (ii) evaluate the risk factors for superinfections development and (iii) assess the impact of superinfections on in-hospital mortality. METHODS: Single-center retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data including COVID-19 patients hospitalized in a newly established respiratory sub-intensive care unit managed by pneumologists which has been set up from September 2020 at a large (1200 beds) University Hospital in Rome. Inclusion criteria were: (i) COVID-19 respiratory failure and/or ARDS; (ii) hospitalization in respiratory sub-intensive care unit and (iii) age > 18 years. Survival was analyzed by Kaplan-Meier curves and the statistical significance of the differences between the two groups was assessed using the log-rank test. Multivariable logistic regression and Cox regression model were performed to tease out the independent predictors for superinfections' development and for mortality, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 201 patients were included. The majority (106, 52%) presented severe COVID-19. Co-infections were 4 (1.9%), whereas 46 patients (22%) developed superinfections, mostly primary bloodstream infections and pneumonia. In 40.6% of cases, multi-drug resistant pathogens were detected, with carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CR-Ab) isolated in 47%. Overall mortality rate was 30%. Prior (30-d) infection and exposure to antibiotic therapy were independent risk factors for superinfection development whereas the development of superinfections was an independent risk factors for in-hospital mortality. CR-Ab resulted independently associated with 14-d mortality. CONCLUSION: In a COVID-19 respiratory sub-intensive care unit, superinfections were common and represented an independent predictor of mortality. CR-Ab infections occurred in almost half of patients and were associated with high mortality. Infection control rules and antimicrobial stewardship are crucial in this specific setting to limit the spread of multi-drug resistant organisms.

Toll-Like Receptor 4-Dependent Platelet-Related Thrombosis in SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 is associated with an increased risk of venous and arterial thrombosis, but the underlying mechanism is still unclear. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional analysis of platelet function in 25 SARS-CoV-2 and 10 healthy subjects by measuring Nox2 (NADPH oxidase 2)-derived oxidative stress and thromboxane B2, and investigated if administration of monoclonal antibodies against the S protein (Spike protein) of SARS-CoV-2 affects platelet activation. Furthermore, we investigated in vitro if the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 or plasma from SARS-CoV-2 enhanced platelet activation. RESULTS: Ex vivo studies showed enhanced platelet Nox2-derived oxidative stress and thromboxane B2 biosynthesis and under laminar flow platelet-dependent thrombus growth in SARS-CoV-2 compared with controls; both effects were lowered by Nox2 and TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4) inhibitors. Two hours after administration of monoclonal antibodies, a significant inhibition of platelet activation was observed in patients with SARS-CoV-2 compared with untreated ones. In vitro study showed that S protein per se did not elicit platelet activation but amplified the platelet response to subthreshold concentrations of agonists and functionally interacted with platelet TLR4. A docking simulation analysis suggested that TLR4 binds to S protein via three receptor-binding domains; furthermore, immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence showed S protein-TLR4 colocalization in platelets from SARS-CoV-2. Plasma from patients with SARS-CoV-2 enhanced platelet activation and Nox2-related oxidative stress, an effect blunted by TNF (tumor necrosis factor) α inhibitor; this effect was recapitulated by an in vitro study documenting that TNFα alone promoted platelet activation and amplified the platelet response to S protein via p47phox (phagocyte oxidase) upregulation. CONCLUSIONS: The study identifies 2 TLR4-dependent and independent pathways promoting platelet-dependent thrombus growth and suggests inhibition of TLR4. or p47phox as a tool to counteract thrombosis in SARS-CoV-2.

High Incidence of Candidemia in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients Supported by Veno-Venous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of candidemia in severe COVID-19 patients (0.8-14%) is two- to ten-fold higher than in non-COVID-19 patients. METHODS: This retrospective analysis aimed to analyse the incidence of bloodstream infections (BSI) due to Candida in a cohort of COVID-19 patients supported with ECMO. RESULTS: Among 138 intubated and ventilated patients hospitalized for ≥10 days in the intensive care unit of a teaching hospital, 45 (32.6%) patients received ECMO support, while 93 patients (67.4%) did not meet ECMO criteria and were considered the control group. In the ECMO group, 16 episodes of candidaemia were observed, while only 13 in patients of the control group (36.0% vs. 14.0%, p-value 0.004). It was confirmed at the survival analysis (SHR: 2.86, 95% CI: 1.39-5.88) and at the multivariable analyses (aSHR: 3.91, 95% CI: 1.73-8.86). A higher candida score seemed to increase the hazard for candidemia occurrence (aSHR: 3.04, 95% CI: 2.09-4.42), while vasopressor therapy was negatively associated with the outcome (aSHR: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.05-0.43). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms that the incidence of candidemia was significantly higher in critically ill COVID-19 patients supported with VV-ECMO than in critically ill COVID patients who did not meet criteria for VV-ECMO.

Clinical Impact of Colonization with Carbapenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria in Critically Ill Patients Admitted for Severe Trauma.

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) have raised concerns as common, frequent etiologic agents of nosocomial infections, and patients admitted to intensive care units (ICUs) present the highest risk for colonization and infection. The incidence of colonization and infection in trauma patients remains poorly investigated. The aim of this study was to assess the risk factors for Carbapenem-resistant (CR)-GNB colonization and the clinical impact of colonization acquisition in patients with severe trauma admitted to the ICU in a CR-GNB hyperendemic country. This is a retrospective observational study; clinical and laboratory data were extracted from the nosocomial infection surveillance system database. Among 54 severe trauma patients enrolled in the study, 28 patients were colonized by CR-GNB; 7 (12.96%) patients were already colonized at ICU admission; and 21 (38.89%) patients developed a new colonization during their ICU stay. Risk factors for colonization were the length of stay in the ICU (not colonized, 14.81 days ± 9.1 vs. colonized, 38.19 days ± 27.9; p-value = 0.001) and days of mechanical ventilation (not colonized, 8.46 days ± 7.67 vs. colonized, 22.19 days ± 15.09; p-value < 0.001). There was a strong statistical association between previous colonization and subsequent development of infection (OR = 80.6, 95% CI 4.5−1458.6, p-value < 0.001). Factors associated with the risk of infection in colonized patients also included a higher Charlson comorbidity index, a longer length of stay in the ICU, a longer duration of mechanical ventilation, and a longer duration of treatment with carbapenem and vasopressors (not infected vs. infected: 0(0−4) vs. 1(0−3), p = 0.012; 24.82 ± 16.77 vs. 47 ± 28.51, p = 0.016; 13.54 ± 15.84 vs. 31.7 ± 16.22, p = 0.008; 1.09 ± 1.14 vs. 7.82 ± 9.15, p = 0.008). The adoption of MDR-GNB colonization prevention strategies in critically ill patients with severe trauma is required to improve the quality of care and reduce nosocomial infections, length of hospital stay and mortality.

Ceftazidime-Avibactam for the Treatment of Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Infections in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis.

Background: Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) infections in patients with cirrhosis represent a significant therapeutic challenge as they are associated with poor outcomes due to high rates of treatment failure, and frequently induce liver decompensation. Aims: To evaluate treatment failure and in-hospital mortality in two cohorts of patients with cirrhosis and with CRKP infections treated with antibiotic regimens including or excluding Ceftazidime-avibactam. Methods: Data from hospitalized patients with liver cirrhosis and CRKP infections were extracted and retrospectively analyzed. Results: During the study period, 39 cirrhotic patients with confirmed invasive CRKP infections were enrolled. Overall, the median age was 60 years with a median MELD score of 16 points. Urinary tract infections were diagnosed in 46%, followed by pneumonia in 23%, and primary bacteremia in 18% of patients. Treatment failure was reported in 10 patients (26%), while in-hospital mortality in 15 patients (38%). A monotherapy was used in 8 patients (20.5%), while a combination therapy was required in 31 patients (79.5%). Ceftazidime-avibactam therapy was associated with lower rates of treatment failure (7% vs. 38%, P = 0.032) independent of severity of liver disease (Child Class) and mono or combination antibiotic therapy. Acute kidney injury, hepatorenal syndrome, and acute-on-chronic liver failure were the consequences more frequently observed in patients with treatment failure. In-hospital mortality was associated with treatment failure, and Ceftazidime-avibactam therapy improved in-hospital survival (log rank test: P = 0.035) adjusted for Child class and mono or combination therapy. Conclusion: Treatment including ceftazidime-avibactam was associated with a lower rate of treatment failure in cirrhotic patients with CRKP infections. Considering the favorable efficacy and outcomes of ceftazidime-avibactam, this drug should be considered for the treatment of these severe infections in patients with liver cirrhosis, though further investigation is required.