Math self-concept in the transition to secondary school: Developmental trends, predictors, and educational implications among high-ability and average-ability students.

This study examined the development of math self-concept during the transition to secondary school comparatively among high-ability and average-ability students in a largescale longitudinal sample in Flanders, Belgium (N = 5740 students; 49.5% males). Latent change models revealed that high-ability students, although maintaining higher relative levels of math self-concept, experienced steeper levels of math self-concept decline in the transition to secondary school than their average-ability peers, according to students' reports. Cognitive ability, measured with standardized intelligence tests, predicted steeper math self-concept decline within both ability groups, and in both groups stronger math self-concept decline was associated with (a) higher levels of teacher-reported underachievement in Grade 7 (r2 = 0.13, p < .001), (b) lower standardized math achievement in Grade 11 (r2 = 0.49, p < .001), (c) lower student-reported school well-being in Grade 7 (r2 = 0.13, p < .001) and Grade 11 (r2 = 0.04, p < .001), and (d) higher risk of grade repetition by the end of secondary school (r2 = 0.11, p < .001). These findings establish that the level of math self-concept and the degree in decline in math self-concept can have negative implications for educational outcomes, even when math self-concept level remains high relative to peers.

Peer Influences on (Dis)Engagement in Early Adolescence: the Role of Friendship, Social Status, and Academic Status.

Academic engagement in adolescence is shaped by influences from the peer environment, yet the types of peers impacting engagement remain unclear. This study explores the roles of friends, popular students, and intelligent students in shaping peers' behavioral and emotional (dis)engagement. Data were analyzed from 3409 Flemish eighth-grade students (Mage = 13.48 years, SD = 0.46, 50.09% female), utilizing self-reports and peer nominations to measure (dis)engagement and map friendship, popularity, and intelligence networks in the fall and spring. Longitudinal network analysis revealed that, while accounting for selection and network structure, friends influenced all dimensions of engagement. Popular students influenced emotional disengagement, and intelligent students impacted emotional engagement. These findings underscore the intricate nature of peer dynamics, highlighting the need for a multidimensional approach to studying peer influences on engagement.

Understanding transitions in exploration profiles of students opting for higher education.

Introduction: Since previous research on educational career exploration has mainly been cross-sectional and therefore has been unsuccessful in explaining how this process can change during the final year in secondary education before students make the transition to higher education, this study aimed to examine changes over time in the exploration process. A person-centered research perspective was taken to further deepen the understanding of how different exploration tasks jointly combine into meaningful profiles. In this way, this study tried to gain more insight into why some students go through this process successfully and others do not. Four goals guided this study: identifying exploration profiles of students in Fall and Spring of the final year in secondary school based on four decisional tasks (orientation, self-, broad and in-depth exploration), investigating transitions between exploration profiles across these two timepoints, and examining the role which different antecedents (i.e., academic self-efficacy, academic self-concept, motivation, test anxiety, gender, educational track, socio-economic status) play in explaining both profile membership and transitions between profiles. Methods: Using self-report questionnaires to measure the exploration tasks and the antecedents in final year students, two cross-sectional samples collected in Fall (n = 9,567) and Spring (n = 7,254), and one longitudinal sample (n = 672) were examined. Results: Latent profile analyses identified three exploration profiles at both timepoints: passive, moderately active, and highly active explorers. Latent transition analysis showed the moderately active explorers profile to be the most stable profile, while the passive profile was the most variable profile. Academic self-concept, motivation, test anxiety, and gender had an effect on the initial states, while motivation and test anxiety affected the transition probabilities. For both academic self-concept and motivation, students scoring higher were found to be less present in the passive or the moderately active than in the highly active profile. Furthermore, compared to students who remained in the passive profile, higher levels of motivation were associated with a higher probability to transition to the moderately active profile. Next to that, compared to students who remained in the highly active profile, higher levels of motivation were associated with a lower probability to transition to the moderately active profile. Results on anxiety were inconsistent. Discussion: Based on substantial cross-sectional as well as longitudinal data, our findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the explanatory base of important differences in the study choice making process of students opting for higher education. This may ultimately lead to more timely and fitting support for students with different exploration profiles.

High Cognitive Ability and Mental Health: Findings from a Large Community Sample of Adolescents.

Whereas it has sometimes been asserted that the intellectually gifted would be more prone to develop mental health problems, empirical studies generally do not seem to support such claims. However, much of the available research has relied on preselected samples, introducing risks for sample selection bias. This study scrutinized the relationship between intellectual giftedness (defined as high cognitive ability) and mental health in a large, non-selective sample of early adolescents (n = 3409; 49.6% boys; Mage = 12.5 years). Using a standardized intelligence test (CoVaT-CHC) to identify participants with a high cognitive ability (IQ ≥ 120; n = 403), we compared self- and parent-reported levels of emotional problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and self-reported worry and global self-esteem between high and average ability adolescents. Findings indicated that adolescents with a high cognitive ability were not at increased risk of psychological maladjustment; if any, differences were in favor of the high ability group. However, adolescents who had been formally identified as gifted (i.e., who had received a gifted label) did report worse adjustment for a number of outcomes.

When Insecure Self-Worth Drains Students' Energy: Academic Contingent Self-Esteem and Parents' and Teachers' Perceived Conditional Regard as Predictors of School Burnout.

Whereas both the family and school environment have been suggested to affect school burnout risks, the role of conditionally regarding parenting or teaching, in which affection is granted conditional on student achievement, in the development of school burnout has not yet been examined. This longitudinal study investigated students' academic contingent self-esteem and parental and teacher conditional regard as antecedents of school burnout. The study sample consisted of Flemish early adolescents (n = 3409; Mage = 12.4 years (SD = 0.49) at the first measurement occasion; 50.3% males), which were surveyed twice (start of Grade 7 and Grade 8). Using Latent Change Modeling, academic contingent self-esteem was found to predict school burnout. Parental and teacher conditional regard both contributed to school burnout, partly through academic contingent self-esteem. Whereas negative conditional regard had the strongest implications for school burnout, positive conditional regard contributed most strongly to contingent self-esteem. Associations were systematically found both at the between-student level (i.e., high levels of antecedents were related to high levels of school burnout) and at the within-student level (i.e., increases in antecedents over time were related to concomitant increases in school burnout). These findings emphasize that communicating conditional approval to adolescents may increase school burnout risks, thus jeopardizing their healthy academic development.

Teachers' bullying-related cognitions as predictors of their responses to bullying among students.

BACKGROUND: Teachers may play a key role in reducing bullying by responding to incidents among students. Inspired by the theory of planned behaviour, several studies have investigated teachers' bullying-related cognitions as predictors of their responses to bullying. AIMS: This study investigated whether six teachers' bullying-related cognitions (i.e., perceived seriousness, empathy, attitudes, self-efficacy and attribution of the bullying) predicted five student-perceived teachers' responses (i.e., Non-Intervention, Disciplinary Methods, Victim Support, Mediation and Group Discussion) over time. By examining this objective, more insight into student perceptions of teachers' responses to bullying could also be provided. SAMPLE: In total, 999 upper elementary school students (Mage  = 10.61 at Wave 1, SDage  = .90; 53.6% girls) and their 59 teachers (Mage  = 39.61 at W1, SDage  = 11.60; 79.7% female) participated. METHODS: A bullying questionnaire was administered in three waves to assess students' perceptions of the teachers' responses. Teachers reported bullying-related cognitions in the first wave. Multilevel analyses were used to investigate the relative contribution of the predictors on the teachers' responses over time. RESULTS: None of the teachers' bullying-related cognitions significantly predicted the teachers' specific responses. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that teachers' bullying-related cognitions are not reflected in their responses to bullying as perceived by students. Moreover, the findings indicate that students' perceptions of teachers' responses vary widely within classrooms and over time. Student- and teacher-reported teachers' responses might differ, and these possible differences should be taken into account.

Teachers' Responses to Bullying Questionnaire: A Validation Study in Two Educational Contexts.

Given the high prevalence and dramatic impact of being bullied at school, it is crucial to get more insight into how teachers can reduce bullying. So far, few instruments have measured elementary teachers' responses to bullying. This study investigated the validity of the student-reported Teachers' Responses to Bullying Questionnaire. The factor structure and measurement invariance were tested across two educational contexts among fourth and fifth grade students from Italy (n = 235) and Belgium (n = 667). Furthermore, associations between student-perceived teachers' responses and students' bullying behavior were examined. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the predicted five-factor structure, distinguishing Non-Intervention, Disciplinary Methods, Group Discussion, Mediation, and Victim Support. A partial factor means invariance model was found, allowing for valid comparisons between the Italian and Belgian educational contexts. Significant associations were found between self-reported, but not peer-nominated, bullying behavior and most student-perceived teachers' responses.

Practitioner Review: Dyadic teacher-child relationships: comparing theories, empirical evidence and implications for practice.

BACKGROUND: Research on dyadic teacher-child relationships has grown rapidly. However, a review of relevant theories and its implications for assessment and intervention has been lacking so far. METHODS: A selective review of theories, empirical evidence and interventions was conducted. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Different theories highlight distinct aspects of teacher-child relationships and have different implications for assessment and intervention. The attachment perspective on dyadic teacher-child relationships is most widely applied in psychological research. Also relatively well-known is self-determination theory. However, the interpersonal theory, though widely applied in educational research to teacher-class interactions, has been largely overlooked in research on dyadic teacher-child relationships. The overarching dyadic systems perspective, providing insight in the dynamic interplay between different aspects of teacher-child relationships, also deserves more attention. Recommendations to improve teacher-child relationships address the need for teacher sensitivity, relationship-based communication and flexibility in interpersonal behaviour in everyday teaching.

Trajectory Classes of Relational and Physical Bullying Victimization: Links with Peer and Teacher-Student Relationships and Social-Emotional Outcomes.

Bullying victimization is a prevalent problem in upper elementary school that predicts various detrimental outcomes. Increasing evidence suggests that interindividual differences in the severity of these outcomes result from differences in victimization experiences. However, longitudinal research largely overlooked victimization forms. Additionally, it is unclear how the quality of students' relationships with peers and teachers functions as a risk or protective factor for different patterns of victimization development. This one-year longitudinal study investigated joint trajectories of relational and physical victimization and examined differences between these trajectory classes regarding classroom social relationships as possible antecedents and social-emotional well-being as a possible outcome. A sample of 930 fourth to sixth graders (55 classes, 53.1% girls, Mage = 10.55, SD = 0.90) completed self-reports about relational and physical victimization and social-emotional outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms, self-esteem). Peer nominations were used to measure the social antecedents (i.e., peer rejection and acceptance, teacher-student closeness and conflict). A 3-step approach including Latent Class Growth Analyses and Growth Mixture Modeling yielded two trajectory classes. Most students experienced low, decreasing relational and physical victimization. A smaller group experienced higher, generally stable victimization, more relational than physical. Younger students and girls were more likely to be members of the latter class. This class was more rejected, less accepted, reported more depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem. Teacher-student closeness and conflict were similar across classes. The current study showed that relational and physical victimization followed a largely parallel development. Low social status was found to be a risk factor for belonging to a victimization trajectory that is characterized by stable levels of both relational and physical victimization, with higher levels of the relational form.

Peer Effects on Engagement and Disengagement: Differential Contributions From Friends, Popular Peers, and the Entire Class.

School engagement and disengagement are important predictors of school success that are grounded in the social context of the classroom. This study used multilevel analysis to examine the contributions of the descriptive norms of friends, popular students and classmates regarding engagement and disengagement to the development of Students' own behavioral and emotional engagement and disengagement among Flemish 7th-graders (N = 3,409). Moderating effects of Students' self-esteem and cognitive ability were examined. The results showed effects from friends' and classmates' (dis)engagement on all dimensions of (dis)engagement. Popular Students' engagement only affected individual Student's behavioral disengagement and emotional engagement. Self-esteem and high cognitive ability did not make students more or less susceptible to peer effects.

Reciprocal Links Between Teacher-Student Relationships and Peer Victimization: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study in Early Adolescence.

Although teachers play a central role in tackling peer victimization at school, no study so far has investigated transactional associations between positive and negative teacher-student relationship dimensions and peer victimization in early adolescence. Investigating both dimensions simultaneously in upper elementary school allows to examine differential effects on peer victimization (and vice versa) and could aid tailored prevention and intervention efforts. At three time points within one school year, self-reported teacher-student closeness and conflict and self- and peer-reported peer victimization were assessed in a sample of 930 fourth to sixth grade students (Mage = 10.55 years, 53.1% girls). Cross-lagged models revealed negative within-time associations between closeness and self-reported peer victimization, and positive within-time associations between conflict and self-reported peer victimization at most time points. Whereas closeness and conflict negatively predicted each other across the school year, no bidirectional longitudinal effects were found between teacher-student relationships and peer victimization. The current findings highlight the need for early prevention and intervention efforts to tackle peer victimization, build positive teacher-student relationships, and especially reduce negative teacher-student relationships.

Profiles of maladaptive school motivation among high-ability adolescents: A person-centered exploration of the motivational Pathways to Underachievement model.

INTRODUCTION: The Pathways to Underachievement model (PUM; Snyder & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2013) is a person-oriented framework identifying two distinct patterns of self- and value beliefs that help explain underachievement among cognitively highly able students. This framework was developed to clear up inconclusive findings from variable-centered underachievement research, but has not been previously empirically tested. METHODS: The present study aimed to test the PUM by investigating (a) whether the predicted motivational profiles are evident among a sample of high-ability students (IQ ≥ 120) beginning secondary school in Flanders, Belgium (N = 403, Mage = 12.2 years, 60.5% males) and (b) whether these profiles relate to students' (dis)engagement from and (under)achievement in school, as assessed by the students, their parents and teachers, and school grades. Latent profile analysis was performed on five motivational dimensions: academic self-concept, self-worth contingency, task value beliefs, entity beliefs, and attainment/utility value, and outcomes were compared across profiles using the BCH method. RESULTS: Latent profile analysis identified four profiles, each involving a distinct patterns of motivational variables. Two of the profiles exhibited maladaptive variable patterns consistent with the distinct profiles theorized by the PUM. Furthermore, profile differences in (dis)engagement and (under)achievement outcomes generally corresponded with the predictions of the PUM across multiple perspectives. CONCLUSION: This study found distinct maladaptive motivational profiles that were each linked to the outcomes hypothesized by the PUM. These findings establish empirically that there are qualitatively different types of high-ability underachievers, which supports the Pathways to Underachievement model and gives momentum to person-oriented analysis within underachievement research.

Teachers as co-regulators of children's emotions: A descriptive study of teacher-child emotion dialogues in special education.

BACKGROUND: The study examined how teachers and children with emotional and behavioral disturbances engage in dialogues about children's emotional experiences. Dialogues about emotions are an important strategy for teachers to co-regulate children's emotions but have remained understudied. AIMS: This study aimed to explore whether the Autobiographical Emotional Events Dialogue (AEED) can help to assess the quality of teacher-child emotion dialogues about past emotional events and examined associations with child behavior and teacher-child relationship quality. METHOD: The sample included 85 children and 70 teachers from special education schools serving children with emotional and behavioral disturbances. Teacher-child dialogues were videotaped and coded using the 16 rating scales of the AEED coding system (Koren-Karie, Oppenheim, Carasso, & Haimovich, 2003). RESULTS: The scales (except child boundary dissolution) could be reliably assessed. A Principal Component Analysis yielded 4 factors: Adequate task completion (coherent dialogues and positive child task behavior), Negativity (hostility and teacher boundary dissolution), Teacher Guidance (involvement, structuring, and acceptance), and Resolution (positive closure of negative stories). Child age, verbal intelligence, prosocial behavior, and higher teacher-child relationship scores (higher closeness, lower conflict) were positively associated with the quality of the dialogues but behavior problems were not. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The study provides first insight in teachers' scaffolding of dialogues with children about negative emotional events in special education serving children with emotional and behavioral disturbances.

Spotting Loneliness at School: Associations between Self-Reports and Teacher and Peer Nominations.

In two independent studies, we aimed to examine the extent to which teacher and peer nominations of loneliness are associated with children's and adolescents' self-reported loneliness, respectively. Additionally, we examined whether loneliness nominations from teachers and peers were informative above and beyond peer status and social behaviors associated with loneliness. In Study 1 (N = 1594, Mage = 9.43 years), teacher nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with children's self-reported loneliness as assessed using the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (LSDQ). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that teacher nominations of loneliness predicted children's self-reported loneliness above and beyond teacher nominations of peer status and social behaviors. In Study 2 (N = 350, Mage = 13.81 years), peer nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with adolescents' self-reported loneliness as assessed using the peer-related loneliness subscale of the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LACA). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that peer nominations of loneliness predicted adolescents' self-reported loneliness above and beyond peer nominations of peer status and social behaviors. We conclude that loneliness nominations are valuable, but caution is needed when they are used exclusively to identify lonely children and adolescents.

The role of school-based relationships for school well-being: How different are high- and average-ability students?

BACKGROUND: Relationships with peers and teachers are keys for children's psychosocial development. However, it is unclear whether this also applies for high-ability children. This study adds to the literature by longitudinally examining the role of interpersonal relationships in the educational context for high- and average-ability students. AIMS: In this study, we examined whether high- and average-ability students differ in terms of peer acceptance, teacher conflict, and school well-being. Further, we studied the potential bi-directional effects between school well-being, teacher conflict, and peer acceptance in late childhood and examined whether the relations between these concepts differ between high- and average-ability students. SAMPLE: The total sample consisted of 3,101 Belgian students (49.9% boys, Mage = 9.76 years), with 348 high-ability and 2,753 average-ability students. METHODS: Cognitive ability was assessed in Grade 3 with two cognitive ability tests (for crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence, respectively). The students were followed for three years (Grades 4, 5, and 6), and each year their current teacher filled out questionnaires regarding teacher-child conflict, peer acceptance, and school well-being. RESULTS: High-ability students showed lower teacher conflict, higher peer acceptance, and better school well-being than average-ability students. Cross-lagged analyses showed that peer acceptance consistently predicted school well-being over time, while Grade 4 school well-being impacted Grade 5 teacher conflict. Also, better peer acceptance in Grade 5 predicted lower teacher-student conflict in Grade 6. Multigroup analyses revealed similar associations for both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that high-ability students in general display more positive school-based social relationships and school well-being than average-ability students. We found no differences in the links between these variables for both groups (i.e., high-ability students and average-ability students).

Understanding the origins of child-teacher dependency: mother-child attachment security and temperamental inhibition as antecedents.

This study investigated the joint contribution of child-mother attachment quality and child temperamental inhibition to the development of child-teacher dependency. A sample of 237 kindergartners (Mage = 60.2 months) and their teachers from 36 classrooms participated. Preschool child-mother attachment quality was assessed using the Attachment Q-set. Behavioral inhibition was rated by the preschool teacher. Dependency was assessed at three waves during kindergarten, using observer and teacher reports. In line with assumptions from attachment theory, less securely attached children were observed to be more overly reliant on their teacher in class. For behavioral inhibition, a divergent picture emerged depending on the assessment of dependency: Classroom observations yielded less (overt) indications of dependency among more inhibited children, whereas teachers reported more (covert) expressions of dependency. These results suggest that different measures may capture different aspects of the multifaceted construct of dependency, thus calling for more conceptual and empirical work.

Dependency in teacher-child relationships: deepening our understanding of the construct.

Within an attachment perspective on teacher-child relationships three affective relationship dimensions have been identified: closeness, conflict, and dependency. Whereas a lot of research is available on relational closeness and conflict, far less is known about the construct of dependency. In this paper, we aim to further the conceptualization of child-teacher dependency in several ways. First, we define dependency as a relational construct, not a stable child characteristic. Second, we review relevant research on child-parent attachment to guide hypotheses regarding antecedents and developmental consequences of dependency in child-teacher relationships. Third, we provide an overview of attachment-based research on child-teacher dependency, highlighting unanswered questions, such as how its meaning and correlates may vary depending on cultural orientation and child developmental stage. The studies in this special issue address these questions, thereby deepening our understanding of this neglected relationship dimension.

Is intelligence related to perfectionism? Multidimensional perfectionism and parental antecedents among adolescents across varying levels of cognitive ability.

OBJECTIVE: Although intellectually gifted individuals are often portrayed as perfectionists, evidence for an association between cognitive ability and perfectionism is inconclusive. This study investigates the relations between cognitive ability and two distinct dimensions of perfectionism and addresses the role of parental antecedents of perfectionism in adolescents at different levels of cognitive ability. METHOD: In a community sample of 3,168 adolescents and their parents, cognitive ability was assessed and perfectionism levels and parenting practices were surveyed. RESULTS: Adolescents higher in cognitive ability reported higher levels of Personal Standards (i.e., setting ambitious objectives) but lower levels of Concern over Mistakes (i.e., worrying excessively about mistakes). Parental criticism, high parental expectations, and conditionally regarding parenting were associated positively with Concern over Mistakes, and high parental expectations were related positively to Personal Standards. These associations were generally independent of adolescents' cognitive ability. Parents of adolescents higher in cognitive ability relied less on parenting practices associated with the development of perfectionism. CONCLUSION: Cognitive ability is related to a higher pursuit of personal standards, yet does not constitute a risk factor for excessive concerns about mistakes. Parental antecedents were related similarly and in theoretically meaningful ways to adolescent perfectionism across different levels of cognitive ability.

Current Perspectives on the Management of Reactive Attachment Disorder in Early Education.

Children with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) have special educational needs that are challenging for teachers in early education. In the current contribution, we will discuss a large body of research suggesting that stimulating these children's attachment development is feasible for teachers and potentially a successful strategy to ensure that these children thrive better in the classroom and socially. The current overview discusses research and theory on RAD and RAD treatment and results in the formulation of specific recommendations for the successful management of children with RAD in the classroom.

Perceived Teacher Responses to Bullying Influence Students' Social Cognitions.

Teachers' responses to bullying incidents are key in bullying intervention at school. Scholars have suggested that teacher responses can predict student cognitions that are associated with their bullying behaviors. However, little is known about whether and how teacher responses affect these cognitions. Therefore, the current study investigated the effects of four immediate teacher responses on four bullying-related student cognitions, using an experimental vignette design. Additionally, it was examined whether students' own participant role behaviors in actual bullying moderated these effects. The investigated teacher responses were non-response, comforting the victim, correcting the bully, and a combination of comforting the victim and correcting the bully. The investigated student cognitions were perceived teacher attitudes toward bullying, perceived teacher moral disengagement regarding bullying, student willingness to report bullying to the teacher and student expectations regarding bullying participant role behaviors in the classroom. Fourth-to-sixth grade students (N = 910; 47% boys; M age = 11.04 years, SD = 0.91) read a vignette describing a hypothetical teacher's response to a same bullying incident, following random assignment to one of eight conditions (i.e., four teacher responses × two genders of bully and victim in the vignette). Afterward, students completed questionnaires about their social cognitions and manipulation checks. ANOVA demonstrated that students perceived stronger teacher anti-bullying attitudes and less teacher moral disengagement when the hypothetical teacher displayed an active response. These effects were even stronger when the teacher corrected the bully compared to when only the victim was comforted. Further, students were more willing to report bullying when the teacher corrected the bully than when the teacher only comforted the victim. Finally, students expected less pro-bullying behaviors, more defending and less victimization in the vignette's classroom following active teacher response compared to non-response. The effects of teacher responses on student cognitions were not moderated by students' own participant roles in bullying. Taken together, these findings emphasize the importance of active teacher responses to bullying, and especially, responses that clearly show that bullying is not tolerated. Teachers are encouraged to be aware that students can deduce beliefs from teacher responses which can, in turn, affect bullying processes in the classroom.