Hematuria Cancer Risk Score with Ultrasound Informs Cystoscopy Use in Patients with Hematuria.

BACKGROUND: Hematuria is a cardinal symptom of urinary tract cancer and would require further investigations. OBJECTIVE: To determine the ability of renal bladder ultrasound (RBUS) with the Hematuria Cancer Risk Score (HCRS) to inform cystoscopy use in patients with hematuria. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The development cohort comprised 1984 patients with hematuria from 40 UK hospitals (DETECT 1; ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02676180) who received RBUS. An independent validation cohort comprised 500 consecutive patients referred to secondary care for a suspicion of bladder cancer. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Sensitivity and true negative of the HCRS and RBUS were assessed. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: A total of 134 (7%) and 36 (8%) patients in the development and validation cohorts, respectively, had a diagnosis of urinary tract cancer. Validation of the HCRS achieves good discrimination with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.727 (95% confidence interval 0.648-0.800) in the validation cohort with sensitivity of 95% for the identification of cancer. Utilizing the cutoff of 4.500 derived from the HCRS in combination with RBUS in the development cohort, 680 (34%) patients would have been spared cystoscopy at the cost of missing a G1 Ta bladder cancer and a urinary tract cancer patient, while 117 (25%) patients would have avoided cystoscopy at the cost of missing a single patient of G1 Ta bladder cancer with sensitivity for the identification of cancer of 97% in the validation cohort. CONCLUSIONS: The HCRS with RBUS offers good discriminatory ability in identifying patients who would benefit from cystoscopy, sparing selected patient cohorts from an invasive procedure. PATIENT SUMMARY: The hematuria cancer risk score with renal bladder ultrasound allows for the triage of patients with hematuria who would benefit from visual examination of the bladder (cystoscopy). This resulted in 25% of patients safely omitting cystoscopy, which is an invasive procedure, and would lead to health care cost savings.

Second TURB, restaging TURB or repeat TURB in primary T1 non-muscle invasive bladder cancer: impact on prognosis?

PURPOSE: A re-transurethral resection of the bladder (re-TURB) is a well-established approach in managing non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) for various reasons: repeat-TURB is recommended for a macroscopically incomplete initial resection, restaging-TURB is required if the first resection was macroscopically complete but contained no detrusor muscle (DM) and second-TURB is advised for all completely resected T1-tumors with DM in the resection specimen. This study assessed the long-term outcomes after repeat-, second-, and restaging-TURB in T1-NMIBC patients. METHODS: Individual patient data with tumor characteristics of 1660 primary T1-patients (muscle-invasion at re-TURB omitted) diagnosed from 1990 to 2018 in 17 hospitals were analyzed. Time to recurrence, progression, death due to bladder cancer (BC), and all causes (OS) were visualized with cumulative incidence functions and analyzed by log-rank tests and multivariable Cox-regression models stratified by institution. RESULTS: Median follow-up was 45.3 (IQR 22.7-81.1) months. There were no differences in time to recurrence, progression, or OS between patients undergoing restaging (135 patients), second (644 patients), or repeat-TURB (84 patients), nor between patients who did or who did not undergo second or restaging-TURB. However, patients who underwent repeat-TURB had a shorter time to BC death compared to those who had second- or restaging-TURB (multivariable HR 3.58, P = 0.004). CONCLUSION: Prognosis did not significantly differ between patients who underwent restaging- or second-TURB. However, a worse prognosis in terms of death due to bladder cancer was found in patients who underwent repeat-TURB compared to second-TURB and restaging-TURB, highlighting the importance of separately evaluating different indications for re-TURB.

Prognosis of Primary Papillary Ta Grade 3 Bladder Cancer in the Non-muscle-invasive Spectrum.

BACKGROUND: Ta grade 3 (G3) non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is a relatively rare diagnosis with an ambiguous character owing to the presence of an aggressive G3 component together with the lower malignant potential of the Ta component. The European Association of Urology (EAU) NMIBC guidelines recently changed the risk stratification for Ta G3 from high risk to intermediate, high, or very high risk. However, prognostic studies on Ta G3 carcinomas are limited and inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prognostic value of categorizing Ta G3 compared to Ta G2 and T1 G3 carcinomas. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Individual patient data for 5170 primary Ta-T1 bladder tumors from 17 hospitals were analyzed. Transurethral resection of the tumor was performed between 1990 and 2018. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Time to recurrence and time to progression were analyzed using cumulative incidence functions, log-rank tests, and multivariable Cox-regression models with interaction terms stratified by institution. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: Ta G3 represented 7.5% (387/5170) of Ta-T1 carcinomas of which 42% were classified as intermediate risk. Time to recurrence did not differ between Ta G3 and Ta G2 (p = 0.9) or T1 G3 (p = 0.4). Progression at 5 yr occurred for 3.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.7-4.8%) of Ta G2, 13% (95% CI 9.3-17%) of Ta G3, and 20% (95% CI 17-23%) of T1 G3 carcinomas. Time to progression for Ta G3 was shorter than for Ta G2 (p < 0.001) and longer than for T1 G3 (p = 0.002). Patients with Ta G3 NMIBC with concomitant carcinoma in situ (CIS) had worse prognosis and a similar time to progression as for patients with T1 G3 NMIBC with CIS (p = 0.5). Multivariable analyses for recurrence and progression showed similar results. CONCLUSIONS: The prognosis of Ta G3 tumors in terms of progression appears to be in between that of Ta G2 and T1 G3. However, patients with Ta G3 NMIBC with concomitant CIS have worse prognosis that is comparable to that of T1 G3 with CIS. Our results support the recent EAU NMIBC guideline changes for more refined risk stratification of Ta G3 tumors because many of these patients have better prognosis than previously thought. PATIENT SUMMARY: We used data from 17 centers in Europe and Canada to assess the prognosis for patients with stage Ta grade 3 (G3) non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). Time to cancer progression for Ta G3 cancer differed from both Ta G2 and T1 G3 tumors. Our results support the recent change in the European Association of Urology guidelines for more refined risk stratification of Ta G3 NMIBC because many patients with this tumor have better prognosis than previously thought.

T1G1 Bladder Cancer: Prognosis for this Rare Pathological Diagnosis Within the Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer Spectrum.

BACKGROUND: The pathological existence and clinical consequence of stage T1 grade 1 (T1G1) bladder cancer are the subject of debate. Even though the diagnosis of T1G1 is controversial, several reports have consistently found a prevalence of 2-6% G1 in their T1 series. However, it remains unclear if T1G1 carcinomas have added value as a separate category to predict prognosis within the non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) spectrum. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prognostic value of T1G1 carcinomas compared to TaG1 and T1G2 carcinomas within the NMIBC spectrum. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Individual patient data for 5170 primary Ta and T1 bladder tumors from 17 hospitals in Europe and Canada were analyzed. Transurethral resection (TUR) was performed between 1990 and 2018. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Time to recurrence and progression were analyzed using cumulative incidence functions, log-rank tests, and multivariable Cox regression models stratified by institution. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: T1G1 represented 1.9% (99/5170) of all carcinomas and 5.3% (99/1859) of T1 carcinomas. According to primary TUR dates, the proportion of T1G1 varied between 0.9% and 3.5% per year, with similar percentages in the early and later calendar years. We found no difference in time to recurrence between T1G1 and TaG1 (p = 0.91) or between T1G1 and T1G2 (p = 0.30). Time to progression significantly differed between TaG1 and T1G1 (p < 0.001) but not between T1G1 and T1G2 (p = 0.30). Multivariable analyses for recurrence and progression showed similar results. CONCLUSIONS: The relative prevalence of T1G1 diagnosis was low and remained constant over the past three decades. Time to recurrence of T1G1 NMIBC was comparable to that for other stage/grade NMIBC combinations. Time to progression of T1G1 NMIBC was comparable to that for T1G2 but not for TaG1, suggesting that treatment and surveillance of T1G1 carcinomas should be more like the approaches for T1G2 NMIBC in accordance with the intermediate and/or high risk categories of the European Association of Urology NMIBC guidelines. PATIENT SUMMARY: Although rare, stage T1 grade 1 (T1G1) bladder cancer is still diagnosed in daily clinical practice. Using individual patient data from 17 centers in Europe and Canada, we found that time to progression of T1G1 cancer was comparable to that for T1G2 but not TaG1 cancer. Therefore, our results suggest that primary T1G1 bladder cancers should be managed with more aggressive treatment and more frequent follow-up than for low-risk bladder cancer.

European Association of Urology (EAU) Prognostic Factor Risk Groups for Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer (NMIBC) Incorporating the WHO 2004/2016 and WHO 1973 Classification Systems for Grade: An Update from the EAU NMIBC Guidelines Panel.

BACKGROUND: The European Association of Urology (EAU) prognostic factor risk groups for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) are used to provide recommendations for patient treatment after transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT). They do not, however, take into account the widely used World Health Organization (WHO) 2004/2016 grading classification and are based on patients treated in the 1980s. OBJECTIVE: To update EAU prognostic factor risk groups using the WHO 1973 and 2004/2016 grading classifications and identify patients with the lowest and highest probabilities of progression. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Individual patient data for primary NMIBC patients were collected from the institutions of the members of the EAU NMIBC guidelines panel. INTERVENTION: Patients underwent TURBT followed by intravesical instillations at the physician's discretion. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Multivariable Cox proportional-hazards regression models were fitted to the primary endpoint, the time to progression to muscle-invasive disease or distant metastases. Patients were divided into four risk groups: low-, intermediate-, high-, and a new, very high-risk group. The probabilities of progression were estimated using Kaplan-Meier curves. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: A total of 3401 patients treated with TURBT ± intravesical chemotherapy were included. From the multivariable analyses, tumor stage, WHO 1973/2004-2016 grade, concomitant carcinoma in situ, number of tumors, tumor size, and age were used to form four risk groups for which the probability of progression at 5 yr varied from <1% to >40%. Limitations include the retrospective collection of data and the lack of central pathology review. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides updated EAU prognostic factor risk groups that can be used to inform patient treatment and follow-up. Incorporating the WHO 2004/2016 and 1973 grading classifications, a new, very high-risk group has been identified for which urologists should be prompt to assess and adapt their therapeutic strategy when necessary. PATIENT SUMMARY: The newly updated European Association of Urology prognostic factor risk groups for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer provide an improved basis for recommending a patient's treatment and follow-up schedule.

Papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential (PUN-LMP): Still a meaningful histo-pathological grade category for Ta, noninvasive bladder tumors in 2019?

BACKGROUND: Papillary urothelial neoplasm of low malignant potential (PUN-LMP) was introduced as a noninvasive, noncancerous lesion and a separate grade category in 1998. Subsequently, PUN-LMP was reconfirmed by World Health Organization (WHO) 2004 and WHO 2016 classifications for urothelial bladder tumors. OBJECTIVES: To analyze the proportion of PUN-LMP diagnosis over time and to determine its prognostic value compared to Ta-LG (low-grade) and Ta-HG (high-grade) carcinomas. To assess the intraobserver variability of an experienced uropathologist assigning (WHO) 2004/2016 grades at 2 time points. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Individual patient data of 3,311 primary Ta bladder tumors from 17 hospitals in Europe and Canada were available. Transurethral resection of the tumor was performed between 1990 and 2018. Time to recurrence and progression were analyzed with cumulative incidence functions, log-rank tests and multivariable Cox-regression stratified by institution. Intraobserver variability was assessed by examining the same 314 transurethral resection of the tumorslides twice, in 2004 and again in 2018. RESULTS: PUN-LMP represented 3.8% (127/3,311) of Ta tumors. The same pathologist found 71/314 (22.6%) PUN-LMPs in 2004 and only 20/314 (6.4%) in 2018. Overall, the proportion of PUN-LMP diagnosis substantially decreased over time from 31.3% (1990-2000) to 3.2% (2000-2010) and to 1.1% (2010-2018). We found no difference in time to recurrence between the three WHO 2004/2016 Ta-grade categories (log-rank, P = 0.381), nor for LG vs. PUN-LMP (log-rank, P = 0.238). Time to progression was different for all grade categories (log-rank, P < 0.001), but not between LG and PUN-LMP (log-rank, P = 0.096). Multivariable analyses on recurrence and progression showed similar results for all 3 grade categories and for LG vs. PUN-LMP. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of PUN-LMP has decreased to very low levels in the last decade. Contrary to its reconfirmation in the WHO 2016 classification, our results do not support the continued use of PUN-LMP as a separate grade category in Ta tumors because of the similar prognosis for PUN-LMP and Ta-LG carcinomas.

Mixed adenoneuroendocrine carcinoma of the urethra.

Mixed adenoneuroendocrine carcinoma (MANEC) is a rare tumour found predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract. Comprising adenocarcinomatous and neuroendocrine components, MANEC have been reported in the bladder. We report the first case to our knowledge of a MANEC arising in the urethra. A 62-year-old woman presented with a suburethral mass. Initial excision of the mass revealed it to be a MANEC. Immunohistochemistry staining was positive for CK20 and synaptophysin associated with neuroendocrine tumours. Cross-sectional imaging ruled out metastases and the patient underwent radical urethrectomy, vaginal reconstruction and Mitrofanoff urinary diversion. The patient declined adjuvant chemotherapy and remained under regular surveillance. MANECs are uncommon tumours and treatment was therefore guided by expert opinion. A multidisciplinary approach is essential with the early involvement of surgeons, oncologists, histopathologist, radiologist and neuroendocrine specialists.

Evolution and oncological outcomes of a contemporary radical prostatectomy practice in a UK regional tertiary referral centre.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the clinical and pathological trends, over a 10-year period, in robot-assisted laparoscopic prostatectomy (RALP) in a UK regional tertiary referral centre. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In all, 1 500 consecutive patients underwent RALP between October 2005 and January 2015. Prospective data were collected on clinicopathological details at presentation as well as surgical outcomes and compared over time. RESULTS: The median (range) age of patients throughout the period was 62 (35-78) years. The proportion of preoperative high-grade cases (Gleason score 8-10) rose from 4.6% in 2005-2008 to 18.2% in 2013-2015 (P < 0.001). In the same periods the proportion of clinical stage T3 cases operated on rose from 2.4% to 11.4% (P < 0.001). The median prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level at diagnosis did not alter significantly. Overall, 11.6% of men in 2005-2008 were classified preoperatively as high-risk by National Institute for Health and Care Excellence criteria, compared with 33.6% in 2013-2015 (P < 0.001). The corresponding proportions for low-risk cases were 48.6% and 17.3%, respectively. Final surgical pathology showed an increase in tumour stage, Gleason grade, and nodal status over time. The proportion of pT3 cases rose from 43.2% in 2005-2008 to 55.5% in 2013-2015 (P < 0.001), Gleason score 9-10 tumours increased from 1.8% to 9.1% (P < 0.001) and positive nodal status increased from 1.6% to 12.9% (P < 0.001) between the same periods. Despite this, positive surgical margin rates showed a downward trend in all pT groups across the different eras (P = 0.72). CONCLUSION: This study suggests that the patient profile for RALP in our unit is changing, with increasing proportions of higher stage and more advanced disease being referred and operated on. However, surgical margin outcomes have remained good.

Comparative Oncologic and Toxicity Outcomes of Salvage Radical Prostatectomy Versus Nonsurgical Therapies for Radiorecurrent Prostate Cancer: A Meta-Regression Analysis.

CONTEXT: In the absence of randomised controlled trials comparing the oncologic, toxicity, and functional outcomes of salvage radical prostatectomy (SRP), salvage high-intensity focused ultrasound (SHIFU), salvage brachytherapy (SBT), and salvage cryotherapy (SCT), controversy exists as to the optimal salvage modality in radiorecurrent prostate cancer. OBJECTIVE: We carried out a meta-regression analysis to determine whether there is a difference in oncologic, toxicity, and functional outcomes using data from original publications of salvage modalities in the postradiation setting. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: We performed a systematic review of PubMed/Medline citations according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement. We included 63 articles in the analysis (25 on SRP, 8 on SHIFU, 16 on SCT, 14 on SBT). EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Median values of the following variables were extracted from each study: patient age, length of follow-up, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) before radiotherapy (RT), PSA before salvage therapy, Gleason score before RT, and time interval between RT and salvage therapy. Functional, toxicity, and oncologic outcomes were measured according to rates of impotence, incontinence, fistula formation, urethral strictures, and biochemical recurrence. Meta-regression adjusting for confounders found no significant difference in oncologic outcomes between SRP and nonsurgical salvage modalities. SBT, SCT, and SHIFU appeared to have better continence outcomes than SRP. No significant difference in toxicity outcomes between modalities was found, although limitations such as reporting, selection, and publication bias and between-study heterogeneity must also be considered with these conclusions. CONCLUSIONS: Oncologic outcomes are comparable for SRP and all three nonsurgical salvage modalities. We found no significant differences in toxicity outcomes among modalities; however, SRP appears to be associated with worse rates of urinary incontinence than SBT, SCT, and SHIFU. PATIENT SUMMARY: We performed a meta-regression analysis to compare oncologic, functional, and toxicity outcomes between salvage radical prostatectomy and nonsurgical salvage modalities. Oncologic and toxicity outcomes appear to be similar; however, all nonsurgical salvage modalities may be associated with better continence outcomes.

Incidence of needle-tract seeding following prostate biopsy for suspected cancer: a review of the literature.

With the widespread clinical use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), biopsy of the prostate has become one of the most commonly performed urological procedures. In general it is well tolerated, although there is some morbidity and risk of infection. In recent years, there have been increasing concerns that prostate biopsy may lead to tumour seeding along the needle tract. The aim of the present paper was to review the evidence on the prevalence of tumour seeding after prostate biopsy and to define the risk of this event in the context of current clinical practice. A PubMed literature search was conducted in January 2014 according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement. Literature was examined with emphasis on the incidence of seeding, clinical presentation and on risk factors including type of needle used, transrectal vs transperineal approach, as well as tumour grade and stage. In all, 26 publications were identified reporting needle-tract seeding after prostate biopsy. In all, 42 patients with needle-tract seeding were identified. In most cases, seeding was reported after transperineal biopsy of the prostate, while nine cases occurred after transrectal biopsy. Based on the reviewed series the incidence of seeding appears to be <1%. The increase in the number of biopsies and cores taken at each biopsy over the years has not resulted in an increase in the reported cases of seeding. In conclusion, seeding along the needle track is a rare complication after prostate biopsy. Its actual incidence is presently difficult to quantify. It is reasonable to advise appropriate counselling and take measures to reduce this event where possible; however, we do not advocate avoidance of biopsies as the benefits of appropriate cancer diagnosis and management outweigh any potential risks from seeding.

Role of the angiogenic components, VEGFA, FGF2, OPN and RHOC, in urothelial cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder.

The objective of this study was to analyze the expression profile of the angiogenic components, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGFA), basic fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2), osteopontin (OPN) and ras homolog gene family, member C (RHOC), in urothelial cell carcinoma (UCC) of the urinary bladder and to examine their role as candidate diagnostic biomarkers. Using qPCR, 77 samples of UCC of the urinary bladder and 77 matched tumor-associated normal samples were investigated to determine the expression of the four angiogenic components. The correlation between gene expression, patient survival and pathological features of the tumors was also examined. The VEGFA and OPN transcript levels were greater in the bladder cancer tissue than in the normal urothelium (P<0.001). Patients with higher VEGFA mRNA levels showed a tendency towards shorter cancer-specific survival. OPN levels showed a gradual increase, the lowest levels being found in non-invasive carcinoma and the highest in muscle invasive tumors. Elevated OPN levels indicated poor prognosis in connection with advanced disease stage (P<0.001). Both superficially invasive and muscle invasive tumors had significantly higher FGF2 levels compared to the control tissues (P=0.018 and P=0.050, respectively). Moreover, FGF2 was significantly higher in the metastatic vs. the non-metastatic tumors (P=0.0097). FGF2 levels exhibited a trend towards a correlation with worse patient survival. RHOC mRNA levels were higher in muscle invasive compared to superficially invasive tumors, as well as in grade III vs. grade I/II tumors. Furthermore, we detected worse overall survival for patients with high RHOC expression levels. VEGFA and FGF2 exhibited the best linear combination in the ROC curves for specificity and sensitivity. Thus, VEGFA and FGF2 may serve as candidate biomarkers for diagnostic purposes. Higher OPN expression may be used as a potential biomarker to predict patient survival relative to advanced tumor stage. However, further studies are required to investigate its role in urinary bladder carcinogenesis.

Expression of miRNAs involved in angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, tumor suppressor inhibition, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and activation of metastasis in bladder cancer.

PURPOSE: miRNAs are noncoding RNAs that posttranscriptionally regulate gene expression. Altered expression and function have been observed in bladder cancer. We analyzed the expression profile of a group of miRNAs involved in bladder cancer angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, tumor suppressor inhibition, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis activation. Prognostic and diagnostic value, and validated targets were further examined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction 77 bladder cancer cases and 77 matched tumor associated normal samples were investigated to determine the expression of miR-10b, 19a, 19b, 21, 126, 145, 205, 210, 221, 296-5p and 378. The relationship between miRNA expression, patient survival and tumor pathological features was also examined. RESULTS: miR-10b, 19a, 126, 145, 221, 296-5p and 378 were significantly down-regulated in bladder cancer compared to adjacent normal urothelium. miR-145 was the most down-regulated microRNA of this group. miR-19b, 21, 205 and 210 showed no significant difference between the 2 tissue types. High miR-21 expression correlated with worse overall patient survival (p = 0.0099). Multivariate analysis revealed that miR-21, 210 and 378 may serve as independent prognostic factors for overall patient survival (p = 0.005, 0.033 and 0.012, respectively). miR-21 and 378 may serve as independent prognostic factors for recurrence (p = 0.030 and 0.031, respectively). miR-145, 221, 296-5p and 378 showed the best combined ROC curves for specificity and sensitivity. miRWalk analysis was used to identify validated miRNA target genes. Further Gene Ontology enrichment revealed the main classes of biological functions of these validated targets. CONCLUSIONS: Most miRNAs analyzed are down-regulated in bladder cancer. They may serve as candidate biomarkers for diagnostic and prognostic purposes in the future.

Spotlight on differentially expressed genes in urinary bladder cancer.

INTRODUCTION: We previously identified common differentially expressed (DE) genes in bladder cancer (BC). In the present study we analyzed in depth, the expression of several groups of these DE genes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Samples from 30 human BCs and their adjacent normal tissues were analyzed by whole genome cDNA microarrays, qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Our attention was focused on cell-cycle control and DNA damage repair genes, genes related to apoptosis, signal transduction, angiogenesis, as well as cellular proliferation, invasion and metastasis. Four publicly available GEO Datasets were further analyzed, and the expression data of the genes of interest (GOIs) were compared to those of the present study. The relationship among the GOI was also investigated. GO and KEGG molecular pathway analysis was performed to identify possible enrichment of genes with specific biological themes. RESULTS: Unsupervised cluster analysis of DNA microarray data revealed a clear distinction in BC vs. control samples and low vs. high grade tumors. Genes with at least 2-fold differential expression in BC vs. controls, as well as in non-muscle invasive vs. muscle invasive tumors and in low vs. high grade tumors, were identified and ranked. Specific attention was paid to the changes in osteopontin (OPN, SPP1) expression, due to its multiple biological functions. Similarly, genes exhibiting equal or low expression in BC vs. the controls were scored. Significant pair-wise correlations in gene expression were scored. GO analysis revealed the multi-facet character of the GOIs, since they participate in a variety of mechanisms, including cell proliferation, cell death, metabolism, cell shape, and cytoskeletal re-organization. KEGG analysis revealed that the most significant pathway was that of Bladder Cancer (p = 1.5×10(-31)). CONCLUSIONS: The present work adds to the current knowledge on molecular signature identification of BC. Such works should progress in order to gain more insight into disease molecular mechanisms.

Environmental factors and genetic susceptibility promote urinary bladder cancer.

Cancer of the urinary bladder is the second most common malignancy of the genitourinary tract, currently accounting for up to 5% of all newly diagnosed tumours in the western world. Urinary bladder carcinogenesis seems to develop from the interaction of environmental exposure and genetic susceptibility. Smoking, specific industrial chemicals, dietary nitrates and arsenic represent the most important exogenous risk factors. Chromosomal abnormalities, silencing of certain genes by abnormal methylation of their promoter region, alterations in tumour suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes that induce uncontrolled cell proliferation and reduced apoptosis, are molecular mechanisms that have been reported in bladder carcinogenesis. In this article, we discuss the environmental risk factors of bladder cancer and we review the genetic and epigenetic alterations, including aberrant DNA methylation and deregulation of microRNAs expression. We also discuss the role of p53 and retinoblastoma suppressor genes in disease progression. Finally, we present recent reports on the use of molecular profiling to predict disease stage and grade and direct targeted therapy.