Fetal Cerebral Ventriculomegaly: A Narrative Review and Practical Recommendations for Pediatric Neurologists.

Fetal cerebral ventriculomegaly is one of the most common fetal neurological disorders identified prenatally by neuroimaging. The challenges in the evolving landscape of conditions like fetal cerebral ventriculomegaly involve accurate diagnosis and how best to provide prenatal counseling regarding prognosis as well as postnatal management and care of the infant. The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the literature on fetal ventriculomegaly, including postnatal management and neurodevelopmental outcome, and to provide practice recommendations for pediatric neurologists.

Rule-based deep learning method for prognosis of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy by using susceptibility weighted image analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury can provide assistance in the prognosis of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). We propose a convolutional neural network model to classify SWI images with HIE. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Due to the lack of a large dataset, transfer learning method with fine-tuning a pre-trained ResNet 50 is introduced. We randomly select 11 datasets from patients with normal neurology outcomes (n = 31) and patients with abnormal neurology outcomes (n = 11) at 24 months of age to avoid bias in classification due to any imbalance in the data. RESULTS: We develop a rule-based system to improve the classification performance, with an accuracy of 0.93 ± 0.09. We also compute heatmaps produced by the Grad-CAM technique to analyze which areas of SWI images contributed more to the classification patients with abnormal neurology outcome. CONCLUSION: Such regions that are important in the classification accuracy can interpret the relationship between the brain regions affected by hypoxic-ischemic and neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants with HIE at the age of 2 years.

Automatic veins analysis of susceptibility weighted image in hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to evaluate venous vascular structure and distribution as prognostic indicators of developmental outcomes for infants with neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) by detecting and analysing ridges representing vessels on susceptibility-weighted magnetic resonance images (SWIs). METHODS: Forty-two infants with neonatal HIE underwent SWI in the neonatal period and neurodevelopmental assessment at age 2 years. Normalised histograms of the width, intensity, length and Hessian eigenvalues extracted from the ridge analysis of each patient's SWI are applied as feature vectors to feed into supervised classifiers such as the kNN and random forest (RF) classifiers to predict their neurodevelopmental outcomes. Here we also propose a supervised classifier for automatic prognosis of automated detection of SWI signs of HIE. Our classifier proposed in this paper demonstrates a superior performance in HIE prognosis for the datasets associated with cognitive and motor outcomes and it also enables to determination of brain regions which have been affected by hypoxia-ischaemia by extracting appropriate features from SWI images. RESULTS: The feature vectors containing width, intensity, length, and eigenvalue show a promising classification accuracy of 78.67% ± 2.58Linear regression, polynomial regression, and support vector regression (SVR) models predicted outcomes and the lower mean relative errors (MRE) for motor and cognitive outcomes are 0.088 ± 0.073 and 0.101 ± 0.11 respectively. CONCLUSION: The features derived from the vascular ridges improve the prognostic value of SWI in HIE. Our findings suggest that it is possible to predict neurological, motor, and cognitive outcomes by numerical analysis of neonatal SW images and to identify brain regions on SWI affected by hypoxia-ischaemia.

In-depth characterisation of a cohort of individuals with missense and loss-of-function variants disrupting FOXP2.

BACKGROUND: Heterozygous disruptions of FOXP2 were the first identified molecular cause for severe speech disorder: childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), and yet few cases have been reported, limiting knowledge of the condition. METHODS: Here we phenotyped 28 individuals from 17 families with pathogenic FOXP2-only variants (12 loss-of-function, five missense variants; 14 males; aged 2 to 62 years). Health and development (cognitive, motor, social domains) were examined, including speech and language outcomes with the first cross-linguistic analysis of English and German. RESULTS: Speech disorders were prevalent (23/25, 92%) and CAS was most common (22/25, 88%), with similar speech presentations across English and German. Speech was still impaired in adulthood, and some speech sounds (eg, 'th', 'r', 'ch', 'j') were never acquired. Language impairments (21/25, 84%) ranged from mild to severe. Comorbidities included feeding difficulties in infancy (10/26, 38%), fine (13/26, 50%) and gross (13/26, 50%) motor impairment, anxiety (5/27, 19%), depression (6/27, 22%) and sleep disturbance (10/24, 42%). Physical features were common (22/27, 81%) but with no consistent pattern. Cognition ranged from average to mildly impaired and was incongruent with language ability; for example, seven participants with severe language disorder had average non-verbal cognition. CONCLUSIONS: Although we identify an increased prevalence of conditions like anxiety, depression and sleep disturbance, we confirm that the consequences of FOXP2 dysfunction remain relatively specific to speech disorder, as compared with other recently identified monogenic conditions associated with CAS. Thus, our findings reinforce that FOXP2 provides a valuable entry point for examining the neurobiological bases of speech disorder.

Antenatal counselling for prospective parents whose fetus has a neurological anomaly: part 1, experiences and recommendations for service design.

Prospective parents whose fetus is diagnosed with a neurological anomaly go through a complex range of emotions. They describe their discussions of antenatal counselling from health care professionals as focusing too much on the nature of the anomaly involving unintelligible medical terminology, when what they really want is a picture of the best- and worst-case scenarios. Whilst information on the level of risk for their fetus is important, it is not the parents' primary concern. When statistics for risk are given, they may not be as well understood as the health care professionals think. This review discusses the published evidence on antenatal counselling and recommendations for explaining risk to parents of fetuses with neurological anomalies. From this data we make recommendations for the organization of antenatal counselling services.

Antenatal counselling for prospective parents whose fetus has a neurological anomaly: part 2, risks of adverse outcome in common anomalies.

After diagnosis of a fetal neurological anomaly, prospective parents want to know the best and worst-case scenarios and an estimation of the risk to their infant of having an atypical developmental outcome. The literature on developmental outcomes for fetal neurological anomalies is poor: studies are characterized by retrospective design, small sample size, often no standardized assessment of development, and differing definitions of anomalies. This review provides an aide-memoir on the risks of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome for ventriculomegaly, cortical anomalies, microcephaly, macrocephaly, agenesis of the corpus callosum, posterior fossa anomalies, and myelomeningocele, to assist healthcare professionals in counselling. The data in this review should be used alongside recommendations on counselling and service design described in part 1 to provide antenatal counselling.

Neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy: Motor impairment beyond cerebral palsy.

BACKGROUND: Research investigating neuromotor function in the absence of cerebral palsy (CP) for children who had neonatal HIE is limited. AIMS: To investigate school-age neurological and neuromotor function, and correlations with attention, neonatal Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and neuromotor assessments at toddler age. METHODS: Twenty-seven children with neonatal HIE without CP who underwent hypothermia treatment and a comparison group of 20 children were assessed at age 5-7 years for Minor Neurological Dysfunction (MND; simplified Touwen), motor skills (Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2; MABC-2), parental concern over motor function (MABC Checklist), general cognition (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-IV, WPPSI), and attention (DuPaul ADHD Rating Scale). Neurological examination and motor development, using Bayley-3 scales, at age 24-months was extracted from the clinical database. Clinical neonatal MRI was assessed for hypoxic-ischaemic injury. RESULTS: In the HIE group, MND was more prevalent (p = 0.026) and M-ABC performance (total score p = 0.006; balance subtest p = 0.008) was worse; parents were more concerned about children's motor function (p = 0.011). HIE group inattention scores were higher (p = 0.032), which correlated with lower MABC-2 scores (rs = -0.590, p = 0.004). Neurological examination at 24-months correlated with MND (rs = 0.437, p = 0.033); Bayley-3 motor scores did not correlate with M-ABC-2 scores (rs = 368, p = 0.133). Neonatal MRI findings were not associated with school-age MND (rs = 0.140, p = 0.523) or MABC-2 (rs = 0.300, p = 0.165). CONCLUSIONS: Children with neonatal HIE, without CP, treated with hypothermia may be more likely to develop MND and motor difficulties than typically developing peers. Inattention may contribute to motor performance. In the absence of CP, neonatal MRI and toddler age assessment of motor development have limited predictive value for school-age outcome. Since this was an exploratory study with a small sample size, findings should be confirmed by a definite larger study.

Predictive validity of a qualitative and quantitative Prechtl's General Movements Assessment at term age: Comparison between preterm infants and term infants with HIE.

AIM: To determine (1) if the General Movement Optimality Score (GMOS) at term age enhances prediction of motor impairment at 12 and 24 months of age in high-risk infants, when compared to a global General Movement Assessment (GMA), and (2) compare predictive validity for two high-risk populations: infants born preterm and infants born at term with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy who have received therapeutic hypothermia. METHODS: Fifty-nine extremely preterm or term age infants with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy underwent term age GMA. A GMA score of normal or abnormal, and a comparative numerical General Movement Optimality Score (GMOS, total values 5-42) were assigned. Neurology and motor assessment were carried out at age 12 and 24 months using standardised assessments; Alberta Infant Motor Scale, Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development or Ages and Stages Questionnaire. Outcomes were recorded as normal, motor delayed or cerebral palsy. Motor outcome prediction at 12 and 24 months of age was calculated using the GMA and, using ROC analysis, GMOS cut-off scores were determined. RESULTS: At 12 and 24 months global GMA sensitivity for preterms was 80% and 100%, and for Term HIE was 100% at both ages. Specificity values for preterm infants at 12 and 24 months were 68.8% and 60% versus 28.8% and 21.4% for term HIE. Median GMOS scores were lower in the term HIE group than the preterm group in the normal and poor repertoire categories. Optimality cut off scores enhanced specificity, but values remained low. INTERPRETATION: At term age, specificity for identification of infants with later normal motor outcome is low. The GMOS may assist identification of infants with the highest probability of motor impairment, enabling targeted intervention during critical periods for neuroplasticity.

Training in neonatal neurocritical care: a proposal for a hybrid model of competence by design and time-based methods.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal neurocritical care (NNCC) is a rapidly advancing field with limited fellowship training available in locally developed, non-accredited programs. A standardized survey aimed to understand the training backgrounds of individuals practicing NNCC, the structure of existing clinical NNCC services/training programs, and suggested clinical competencies for new graduates. METHODS: We developed an anonymous survey electronically sent to members of societies related to NNCC. Using the survey results as a guide, we discuss a competence by design (CBD) curriculum as a complementary approach to traditional time-based training. RESULTS: There were 82 responses to the survey from 30 countries; 95% of respondents were physicians. Thirty-one (42%) institutions reported having an NNCC service, 24 (29%) individuals reported formal NNCC training, 81% reported "significant variability" across NNCC training programs, and 88% were both in favor of standardizing training programs and pursuing formal accreditation for NNCC in the next 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: The survey results demonstrate international interest in standardizing NNCC training and development of an accreditation or certification process. We propose consideration of a CBD-type curriculum as a training approach to focus on the development of specific NNCC competencies, rather than assuming the acquisition of these competencies based on time as a surrogate. IMPACT: Continued growth and development in the field of NNCC has led to increasing need for training programs suited to meet the diverse needs of trainees from varied backgrounds. We present the results of an international survey that assessed the structure of existing training programs and the priority areas in which graduates must demonstrate competence, highlighting the combination of CBD and time-based training as one approach to address these recommendations. The survey results support interest in translating published training competencies, existing expertise, and infrastructure across centers into a standardized curriculum for NNCC including certification opportunities.

Children with neonatal Hypoxic Ischaemic Encephalopathy (HIE) treated with therapeutic hypothermia are not as school ready as their peers.

AIM: We aimed to determine whether children with neonatal Hypoxic Ischaemic Encephalopathy (HIE) treated with therapeutic hypothermia (TH) differ from their peers on measures of fine motor skills, executive function, language and general cognitive abilities, factors that are important for school readiness. METHODS: We compared school readiness in 31children with HIE treated with TH (without Cerebral Palsy; mean age 5 years 4 months) with 20 typically developing children without HIE (mean age 5 years 6 months). RESULTS: Children with HIE scored significantly lower than typically developing children on fine motor skills, executive functions, memory and language. CONCLUSION: While general cognitive abilities and attainment were in the normal range, our findings suggest those scores mask specific underlying difficulties identified by more focussed assessments. Children with HIE treated with TH may not be as 'school ready' as their typically developing classmates and may benefit from long-term follow-up until starting school.

Cognitive Outcome Prediction in Infants With Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy Based on Functional Connectivity and Complexity of the Electroencephalography Signal.

Impaired neurodevelopmental outcome, in particular cognitive impairment, after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is a major concern for parents, clinicians, and society. This study aims to investigate the potential benefits of using advanced quantitative electroencephalography analysis (qEEG) for early prediction of cognitive outcomes, assessed here at 2 years of age. EEG data were recorded within the first week after birth from a cohort of twenty infants with neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). A proposed regression framework was based on two different sets of features, namely graph-theoretical features derived from the weighted phase-lag index (WPLI) and entropies metrics represented by sample entropy (SampEn), permutation entropy (PEn), and spectral entropy (SpEn). Both sets of features were calculated within the noise-assisted multivariate empirical mode decomposition (NA-MEMD) domain. Correlation analysis showed a significant association in the delta band between the proposed features, graph attributes (radius, transitivity, global efficiency, and characteristic path length) and entropy features (Pen and SpEn) from the neonatal EEG data and the cognitive development at age two years. These features were used to train and test the tree ensemble (boosted and bagged) regression models. The highest prediction performance was reached to 14.27 root mean square error (RMSE), 12.07 mean absolute error (MAE), and 0.45 R-squared using the entropy features with a boosted tree regression model. Thus, the results demonstrate that the proposed qEEG features show the state of brain function at an early stage; hence, they could serve as predictive biomarkers of later cognitive impairment, which could facilitate identifying those who might benefit from early targeted intervention.

Weaning oxygen in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a form of chronic lung disease commonly seen in preterm infants as the sequelae following respiratory distress syndrome. The management of evolving BPD aims to minimise lung injury and prevent the impact of hypoxia and hyperoxia. Proposed morbidities include respiratory instability, pulmonary hypertension, suboptimal growth, altered cerebral oxygenation and long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. The ongoing management and associated morbidity present a significant burden for carers and healthcare systems. Long-term oxygen therapy may be required for variable duration, though there is a lack of consensus and wide variation in practise when weaning supplemental oxygen. Furthermore, a shift in care towards earlier discharge and community care underlines the importance of a structured discharge and weaning process that eliminates the potential risks associated with hypoxia and hyperoxia. This review article describes recent evidence outlining oxygen saturation reference ranges in young infants, on which structured guidance can be based.

Disorders of vision in neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) following perinatal asphyxia in term infants is associated with neonatal mortality and a high risk of neurodevelopmental impairment later in life. Visual disorders are an accepted complication of HIE and the association has been cited in the literature many times. This review aims to study the evidence for this association and assess the quality of the data on which this is based. DESIGN: A systematic literature review was conducted and 922 citations were assessed using standard methods outlined by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol. RESULTS: The results demonstrate that the majority of studies have reported on various neurodevelopmental outcomes but rarely specifically vision. Based on limited currently available data, extracted from a number of small studies, an association of neonatal HIE with visual impairments seems to exist but detail is lacking. Notably, in the existing studies, there is a striking lack of consistency in the methods used to diagnose HIE and, similarly, a wide variation in the methods employed to measure visual function. CONCLUSIONS: To explore the observed association further in terms of prognosis and the effects of HIE treatments on visual outcomes, future studies will need to address the issues of standardised diagnostic criteria, severity grading and robust, age-appropriate visual assessment.

Severity of retinopathy of prematurity was associated with a higher risk of cerebral dysfunction in young adults born extremely preterm.

AIM: This Swedish study evaluated whether the severity of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) in extremely preterm infants was related to their overall outcome in young adulthood. METHODS: We followed 39 individuals born between 1988 and 1993 at less than 28 gestational weeks, included in the Stockholm Neonatal Project. A total of 19 were treated for severe ROP, and 20 had no or mild ROP. They were assessed for general cognitive abilities and mental health at 18 years of age and compared with 23 term-born controls. Visual acuity was examined at 21-25 years. They were asked about their education and everyday life. RESULTS: The 19 individuals with severe treated ROP had lower visual acuity and higher risk for intellectual deficits, cerebral palsy and neuropsychiatric diagnoses than those with no or mild ROP and the term controls. Three were visually impaired, none were blind. They were less physically active than the other groups and had more problems finding their way around. However, nine were at university. CONCLUSION: Young adults treated for severe ROP had more problems resulting from cerebral dysfunction than those with no or mild ROP and term-born controls. Retinal and brain pathologies in the extremely preterm infant constitute different expressions of neurovascular disease.

Corrigendum: Motor Abilities in Adolescents Born Preterm Are Associated With Microstructure of the Corpus Callosum.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00367.].