Dendritic spine head diameter predicts episodic memory performance in older adults.

Episodic memory in older adults is varied and perceived to rely on numbers of synapses or dendritic spines. We analyzed 2157 neurons among 128 older individuals from the Religious Orders Study and Rush Memory and Aging Project. Analysis of 55,521 individual dendritic spines by least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression and nested model cross-validation revealed that the dendritic spine head diameter in the temporal cortex, but not the premotor cortex, improved the prediction of episodic memory performance in models containing ß amyloid plaque scores, neurofibrillary tangle pathology, and sex. These findings support the emerging hypothesis that, in the temporal cortex, synapse strength is more critical than quantity for memory in old age.

Modeling late-onset Alzheimer's disease neuropathology via direct neuronal reprogramming.

Late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) is the most common form of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, modeling sporadic LOAD that endogenously captures hallmark neuronal pathologies such as amyloid-ß (Aß) deposition, tau tangles, and neuronal loss remains an unmet need. We demonstrate that neurons generated by microRNA (miRNA)-based direct reprogramming of fibroblasts from individuals affected by autosomal dominant AD (ADAD) and LOAD in a three-dimensional environment effectively recapitulate key neuropathological features of AD. Reprogrammed LOAD neurons exhibit Aß-dependent neurodegeneration, and treatment with ß- or γ-secretase inhibitors before (but not subsequent to) Aß deposit formation mitigated neuronal death. Moreover inhibiting age-associated retrotransposable elements in LOAD neurons reduced both Aß deposition and neurodegeneration. Our study underscores the efficacy of modeling late-onset neuropathology of LOAD through high-efficiency miRNA-based neuronal reprogramming.

A Molecular Basis of Human Brain Connectivity.

Neuroimaging is commonly used to infer human brain connectivity, but those measurements are far-removed from the molecular underpinnings at synapses. To uncover the molecular basis of human brain connectivity, we analyzed a unique cohort of 98 individuals who provided neuroimaging and genetic data contemporaneous with dendritic spine morphometric, proteomic, and gene expression data from the superior frontal and inferior temporal gyri. Through cellular contextualization of the molecular data with dendritic spine morphology, we identified hundreds of proteins related to synapses, energy metabolism, and RNA processing that explain between-individual differences in functional connectivity and structural covariation. By integrating data at the genetic, molecular, subcellular, and tissue levels, we bridged the divergent fields of molecular biology and neuroimaging to identify a molecular basis of brain connectivity. One-Sentence Summary: Dendritic spine morphometry and synaptic proteins unite the divergent fields of molecular biology and neuroimaging.

Endogenous recapitulation of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology through human 3D direct neuronal reprogramming.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects elderly individuals, and is characterized by hallmark neuronal pathologies including extracellular amyloid-ß (Aß) plaque deposition, intracellular tau tangles, and neuronal death. However, recapitulating these age-associated neuronal pathologies in patient-derived neurons has remained a significant challenge, especially for late-onset AD (LOAD), the most common form of the disorder. Here, we applied the high efficiency microRNA-mediated direct neuronal reprogramming of fibroblasts from AD patients to generate cortical neurons in three-dimensional (3D) Matrigel and self-assembled neuronal spheroids. Our findings indicate that neurons and spheroids reprogrammed from both autosomal dominant AD (ADAD) and LOAD patients exhibited AD-like phenotypes linked to neurons, including extracellular Aß deposition, dystrophic neurites with hyperphosphorylated, K63-ubiquitin-positive, seed-competent tau, and spontaneous neuronal death in culture. Moreover, treatment with ß- or γ-secretase inhibitors in LOAD patient-derived neurons and spheroids before Aß deposit formation significantly lowered Aß deposition, as well as tauopathy and neurodegeneration. However, the same treatment after the cells already formed Aß deposits only had a mild effect. Additionally, inhibiting the synthesis of age-associated retrotransposable elements (RTEs) by treating LOAD neurons and spheroids with the reverse transcriptase inhibitor, lamivudine, alleviated AD neuropathology. Overall, our results demonstrate that direct neuronal reprogramming of AD patient fibroblasts in a 3D environment can capture age-related neuropathology and reflect the interplay between Aß accumulation, tau dysregulation, and neuronal death. Moreover, miRNA-based 3D neuronal conversion provides a human-relevant AD model that can be used to identify compounds that can potentially ameliorate AD-associated pathologies and neurodegeneration.

Cross-Platform Synaptic Network Analysis of Human Entorhinal Cortex Identifies TWF2 as a Modulator of Dendritic Spine Length.

Proteomic studies using postmortem human brain tissue samples have yielded robust assessments of the aging and neurodegenerative disease(s) proteomes. While these analyses provide lists of molecular alterations in human conditions, like Alzheimer's disease (AD), identifying individual proteins that affect biological processes remains a challenge. To complicate matters, protein targets may be highly understudied and have limited information on their function. To address these hurdles, we sought to establish a blueprint to aid selection and functional validation of targets from proteomic datasets. A cross-platform pipeline was engineered to focus on synaptic processes in the entorhinal cortex (EC) of human patients, including controls, preclinical AD, and AD cases. Label-free quantification mass spectrometry (MS) data (n = 2260 proteins) was generated on synaptosome fractionated tissue from Brodmann area 28 (BA28; n = 58 samples). In parallel, dendritic spine density and morphology was measured in the same individuals. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to construct a network of protein co-expression modules that were correlated with dendritic spine metrics. Module-trait correlations were used to guide unbiased selection of Twinfilin-2 (TWF2), which was the top hub protein of a module that positively correlated with thin spine length. Using CRISPR-dCas9 activation strategies, we demonstrated that boosting endogenous TWF2 protein levels in primary hippocampal neurons increased thin spine length, thus providing experimental validation for the human network analysis. Collectively, this study describes alterations in dendritic spine density and morphology as well as synaptic proteins and phosphorylated tau from the entorhinal cortex of preclinical and advanced stage AD patients.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Proteomic studies can yield vast lists of molecules that are altered under various experimental or disease conditions. Here, we provide a blueprint to facilitate mechanistic validation of protein targets from human brain proteomic datasets. We conducted a proteomic analysis of human entorhinal cortex (EC) samples spanning cognitively normal and Alzheimer's disease (AD) cases with a comparison of dendritic spine morphology in the same samples. Network integration of proteomics with dendritic spine measurements allowed for unbiased discovery of Twinfilin-2 (TWF2) as a regulator of dendritic spine length. A proof-of-concept experiment in cultured neurons demonstrated that altering Twinfilin-2 protein level induced corresponding changes in dendritic spine length, thus providing experimental validation for the computational framework.

Comparison of Golgi-Cox and Intracellular Loading of Lucifer Yellow for Dendritic Spine Density and Morphology Analysis in the Mouse Brain.

Dendritic spines are small protrusions on dendrites that serve as the postsynaptic site of the majority of excitatory synapses. These structures are important for normal synaptic transmission, and alterations in their density and morphology have been documented in various disease states. Over 130 years ago, Ramón y Cajal used Golgi-stained tissue sections to study dendritic morphology. Despite the array of technological advances, including iontophoretic microinjection of Lucifer yellow (LY) fluorescent dye, Golgi staining continues to be one of the most popular approaches to visualize dendritic spines. Here, we compared dendritic spine density and morphology among pyramidal neurons in layers 2/3 of the mouse medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and pyramidal neurons in hippocampal CA1 using three-dimensional digital reconstructions of (1) brightfield microscopy z-stacks of Golgi-impregnated dendrites and (2) confocal microscopy z-stacks of LY-filled dendrites. Analysis of spine density revealed that the LY microinjection approach enabled detection of approximately three times as many spines as the Golgi staining approach in both brain regions. Spine volume measurements were larger using Golgi staining compared to LY microinjection in both mPFC and CA1. Spine length was mostly comparable between techniques in both regions. In the mPFC, head diameter was similar for Golgi staining and LY microinjection. However, in CA1, head diameter was approximately 50% smaller on LY-filled dendrites compared to Golgi staining. These results indicate that Golgi staining and LY microinjection yield different spine density and morphology measurements, with Golgi staining failing to detect dendritic spines and overestimating spine size.

Conditional deletion of ROCK2 induces anxiety-like behaviors and alters dendritic spine density and morphology on CA1 pyramidal neurons.

Rho-associated kinase isoform 2 (ROCK2) is an attractive drug target for several neurologic disorders. A critical barrier to ROCK2-based research and therapeutics is the lack of a mouse model that enables investigation of ROCK2 with spatial and temporal control of gene expression. To overcome this, we generated ROCK2fl/fl mice. Mice expressing Cre recombinase in forebrain excitatory neurons (CaMKII-Cre) were crossed with ROCK2fl/fl mice (Cre/ROCK2fl/fl), and the contribution of ROCK2 in behavior as well as dendritic spine morphology in the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and basolateral amygdala (BLA) was examined. Cre/ROCK2fl/fl mice spent reduced time in the open arms of the elevated plus maze and increased time in the dark of the light-dark box test compared to littermate controls. These results indicated that Cre/ROCK2fl/fl mice exhibited anxiety-like behaviors. To examine dendritic spine morphology, individual pyramidal neurons in CA1 hippocampus, mPFC, and the BLA were targeted for iontophoretic microinjection of fluorescent dye, followed by high-resolution confocal microscopy and neuronal 3D reconstructions for morphometry analysis. In dorsal CA1, Cre/ROCK2fl/fl mice displayed significantly increased thin spine density on basal dendrites and reduced mean spine head volume across all spine types on apical dendrites. In ventral CA1, Cre/ROCK2fl/fl mice exhibited significantly increased spine length on apical dendrites. Spine density and morphology were comparable in the mPFC and BLA between both genotypes. These findings suggest that neuronal ROCK2 mediates spine density and morphology in a compartmentalized manner among CA1 pyramidal cells, and that in the absence of ROCK2 these mechanisms may contribute to anxiety-like behaviors.

Dendritic Spines: Mediators of Cognitive Resilience in Aging and Alzheimer's Disease.

Cognitive resilience is often defined as the ability to remain cognitively normal in the face of insults to the brain. These insults can include disease pathology, such as plaques and tangles associated with Alzheimer's disease, stroke, traumatic brain injury, or other lesions. Factors such as physical or mental activity and genetics may contribute to cognitive resilience, but the neurobiological underpinnings remain ill-defined. Emerging evidence suggests that dendritic spine structural plasticity is one plausible mechanism. In this review, we highlight the basic structure and function of dendritic spines and discuss how spine density and morphology change in aging and Alzheimer's disease. We note evidence that spine plasticity mediates resilience to stress, and we tackle dendritic spines in the context of cognitive resilience to Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we examine how lifestyle and genetic factors may influence dendritic spine plasticity to promote cognitive resilience before discussing evidence for actin regulatory kinases as therapeutic targets for Alzheimer's disease.

Dendritic Spine Remodeling and Synaptic Tau Levels in PS19 Tauopathy Mice.

Synapse or dendritic spine loss is the strongest correlate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), but not amyloid-ß plaques, associate more closely with transition to mild cognitive impairment. Yet, how dendritic spine architecture is affected by hyperphosphorylated tau is still an ongoing question. To address this, we combined cell and biochemical analyses of the Tau P301S mouse line (PS19). Individual pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were targeted for iontophoretic microinjection of fluorescent dye, followed by high-resolution confocal microscopy and 3D morphometry analysis. In the hippocampus, PS19 mice and non-transgenic (NTG) littermates displayed equivalent spine density at 6 and 9 months, but both genotypes exhibited age-related thin spine loss. PS19 mice exhibited significant increases in synaptic tau protein levels and mean dendritic spine head diameter with age. This suggests that CA1 pyramidal neurons in PS19 mice may undergo spine remodeling in response to tau accumulation and age. In the mPFC, spine density was similar among PS19 mice and NTG littermates at 6 and 9 months, but age-related reductions in synaptic tau levels were observed among PS19 mice. Collectively, these studies reveal brain region-specific changes in dendritic spine density and morphology in response to age and the presence of hyperphosphorylated tau in the PS19 mouse line.

Pharmacologic inhibition of LIMK1 provides dendritic spine resilience against ß-amyloid.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapies predominantly focus on ß-amyloid (Aß), but Aß effects may be maximal before clinical symptoms appear. Downstream of Aß, dendritic spine loss correlates most strongly with cognitive decline in AD. Rho-associated kinases (ROCK1 and ROCK2) regulate the actin cytoskeleton, and ROCK1 and ROCK2 protein abundances are increased in early AD. Here, we found that the increased abundance of ROCK1 in cultured primary rat hippocampal neurons reduced dendritic spine length through a myosin-based pathway, whereas the increased abundance of ROCK2 induced spine loss through the serine and threonine kinase LIMK1. Aß42 oligomers can activate ROCKs. Here, using static imaging studies combined with multielectrode array analyses, we found that the ROCK2-LIMK1 pathway mediated Aß42-induced spine degeneration and neuronal hyperexcitability. Live-cell microscopy revealed that pharmacologic inhibition of LIMK1 rendered dendritic spines resilient to Aß42 oligomers. Treatment of hAPP mice with a LIMK1 inhibitor rescued Aß-induced hippocampal spine loss and morphologic aberrations. Our data suggest that therapeutically targeting LIMK1 may provide dendritic spine resilience to Aß and therefore may benefit cognitively normal patients that are at high risk for developing dementia.

Substantia nigra ultrastructural pathology in schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness affecting approximately 1% of the population worldwide. Despite its prevalence, the cause remains unknown, and treatment is not effective in all patients. Dopamine is thought to play a role in schizophrenia pathology, yet the substantia nigra (SN), the origin of dopaminergic pathways, has not been studied extensively in schizophrenia. In this study, electron microscopy was used to examine neurons, oligodendrocytes, and myelinated axons in the SN of normal controls (NCs, n=9) and schizophrenia subjects with varying response to antipsychotic drugs [SZ, n=14; treatment resistant (TR)=6, treatment responsive (RESP)=6, unknown=2]. Postmortem tissue was analyzed for qualitative and quantitative markers of ultrastuctural integrity. A significantly higher percentage of axons in the schizophrenia group had inclusions in the myelin sheath compared to NCs (SZ: 3.9±1.7, NC: 2.6±2.0). When considering treatment response, a significantly higher percentage of axons lacked cytoplasm (TR: 9.7±5.5, NC: 3.5±2.3), contained cellular debris (TR: 7.5±3.2, NC: 2.3±1.3) or had protrusions in the myelin sheath (TR: 0.4±0.5, NC: 0.2±0.3). The G-ratio, a measure of myelin thickness, was significantly different between treatment response groups and was greater in TR (0.72±0.02) as compared to NCs (0.68±0.03), indicating decreased myelination in TR. These findings, which suggest myelin pathology in the SN in schizophrenia, are consistent with findings elsewhere in the brain. In addition, our results suggest cytoskeletal abnormalities, which may or may not be associated with myelin pathology.

Elevated Excitatory Input to the Nucleus Accumbens in Schizophrenia: A Postmortem Ultrastructural Study.

The cause of schizophrenia (SZ) is unknown and no single region of the brain can be pinpointed as an area of primary pathology. Rather, SZ results from dysfunction of multiple neurotransmitter systems and miswiring between brain regions. It is necessary to elucidate how communication between regions is disrupted to advance our understanding of SZ pathology. The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) is a prime region of interest, where inputs from numerous brain areas altered in SZ are integrated. Aberrant signaling in the NAcc is hypothesized to cause symptoms of SZ, but it is unknown if these abnormalities are actually present. Electron microscopy was used to study the morphology of synaptic connections in SZ. The NAcc core and shell of 6 SZ subjects and 8 matched controls were compared in this pilot study. SZ subjects had a 19% increase in the density of asymmetric axospinous synapses (characteristic of excitatory inputs) in the core, but not the shell. Both groups had similar densities of symmetric synapses (characteristic of inhibitory inputs). The postsynaptic densities of asymmetric synapses had 22% smaller areas in the core, but not the shell. These results indicate that the core receives increased excitatory input in SZ, potentially leading to dysfunctional dopamine neurotransmission and cortico-striatal-thalamic stimulus processing. The reduced postsynaptic density size of asymmetric synapses suggests impaired signaling at these synapses. These findings enhance our understanding of the role the NAcc might play in SZ and the interaction of glutamatergic and dopaminergic abnormalities in SZ.