Unraveling power-law scaling through exponential cell division dynamics.

A primary objective of biology is the development of universal laws that define how organic form develops and how it evolves as a function of size, both ontogenetically and across evolutionary time. Scaling theory has been essential in reaching this goal by giving a complete perspective point, particularly in illuminating the fundamental biological features produced within scaling exponents defining families of equations. Nonetheless, the theoretical basis of the allometric equation within scaling theory are inadequately explained, particularly when it comes to establishing links between micro-level processes at the cellular level and macro-level phenomena. We proposed an unlimited cell bipartition, resulting in an exponential growth in cell numbers during an individual's lifespan, to bridge this conceptual gap between cellular processes and allometric scaling. The power-law scaling between body mass and organ weight was produced by the synchronous exponential increments and the allometric exponent is rate of logarithmic cell proliferation rate. Substituting organ weight for erythrocyte weight aided in the development of a power-law scaling relationship between body mass and metabolic rate. Furthermore, it is critical to understand how cell size affects the exponent in power-law scaling. We find that a bigger exponent will result from an increase in the average weight of organ cells or a decrease in the average weight of all cells. Furthermore, cell proliferation dynamics showed a complex exponential scaling between body mass and longevity, defying the previously reported power-law scaling. We discovered a quadratic link between longevity and logarithmic body mass. Notably, all of the parameters included in these relationships are explained by indices linked to cell division and embryonic development. This research adds to our understanding of the complex interaction between cellular processes and overarching scaling phenomena in biology.

Effects of environmental feedback on species with finite population.

In an unchanging environment, natural selection always selects species with high fitness. In this study, we build a co-evolutionary system to study the interaction between stochasticity in finite populations and environmental feedback. Positive feedback between species and environment is detrimental to the invasion success, whereas negative feedback is beneficial to invasion since feedback makes population size important enough to revise natural selection's preference. In competition scenario, positive and negative feedback will benefit the initially inferior species. When selection intensity is high, negative feedback may even cause natural selection to favor the initially inferior species. All of these effects are caused by feedback that allows the initially inferior species to have greater fitness than the initially dominant species. Our results emphasize that the effects of stochasticity in evolutionary path can be reinforced by feedback with environment and then reverse the preference of natural selection.

Foxp3-mediated blockage of ryanodine receptor 2 underlies contact-based suppression by regulatory T cells.

The suppression mechanism of Tregs remains an intensely investigated topic. As our focus has shifted toward a model centered on indirect inhibition of DCs, a universally applicable effector mechanism controlled by the transcription factor forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) expression has not been found. Here, we report that Foxp3 blocked the transcription of ER Ca2+-release channel ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2). Reduced RyR2 shut down basal Ca2+ oscillation in Tregs, which reduced m-calpain activities that are needed for T cells to disengage from DCs, suggesting a persistent blockage of DC antigen presentation. RyR2 deficiency rendered the CD4+ T cell pool immune suppressive and caused it to behave in the same manner as Foxp3+ Tregs in viral infection, asthma, hypersensitivity, colitis, and tumor development. In the absence of Foxp3, Ryr2-deficient CD4+ T cells rescued the systemic autoimmunity associated with scurfy mice. Therefore, Foxp3-mediated Ca2+ signaling inhibition may be a central effector mechanism of Treg immune suppression.

RyR2 C-terminal truncating variants identified in patients with arrhythmic phenotypes exert a dominant negative effect through formation of wildtype-truncation heteromers.

Gain-of-function missense variants in the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) are linked to catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), whereas RyR2 loss-of-function missense variants cause Ca2+ release deficiency syndrome (CRDS). Recently, truncating variants in RyR2 have also been associated with ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) and sudden cardiac death. However, there are limited insights into the potential clinical relevance and in vitro functional impact of RyR2 truncating variants. We performed genetic screening of patients presenting with syncope, VAs, or unexplained sudden death and in vitro characterization of the expression and function of RyR2 truncating variants in HEK293 cells. We identified two previously unknown RyR2 truncating variants (Y4591Ter and R4663Ter) and one splice site variant predicted to result in a frameshift and premature termination (N4717 + 15Ter). These 3 new RyR2 truncating variants and a recently reported RyR2 truncating variant, R4790Ter, were generated and functionally characterized in vitro. Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting analyses showed that all 4 RyR2 truncating variants formed heteromers with the RyR2-wildtype (WT) protein. Each of these C-terminal RyR2 truncations was non-functional and suppressed [3H]ryanodine binding to RyR2-WT and RyR2-WT mediated store overload induced spontaneous Ca2+ release activity in HEK293 cells. The expression of these RyR2 truncating variants in HEK293 cells was markedly reduced compared with that of the full-length RyR2 WT protein. Our data indicate that C-terminal RyR2 truncating variants are non-functional and can exert a dominant negative impact on the function of the RyR2 WT protein through formation of heteromeric WT/truncation complex.

Elevated expression of immune and DNA repair genes in mated queens and kings of the Reticulitermes chinensis termites.

Studies have identified that mating induces a series of physiological changes in animals. In this period, males tending to invest more energy, immune peptides, and other substances to reduce the cost of living for females. This results in lower survival rates in later life than females. Meanwhile, both males and females shorten lifespans due to reproduction. However, the reasons why termites' queens and kings are both extremely long-lived and highly fecund are unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of mating on the expression of immune and DNA repair genes for lifespan extension in termite queens and kings. Here, we reported that mated queens show relatively higher expression of immune genes (phenoloxidase, denfensin, termicin, transferrin), antioxidant genes (CAT, SOD), detoxification genes (GST, CYP450) than virgin queens in the Reticulitermes chinensis. In addition, mated kings also highly expressed these genes, except for termicin, transferrin, GST, and CYP450. After mating, both queens and kings significantly upregulated the expression of DNA repair genes (MLH1, BRCA1, XRCC3, RAD54-like). Mismatch repair genes (MMR) MSH2, MSH4, MSH6 were considerably increased in mated queens, while MSH4, MSH5, MSH6 were upregulated in mated kings. Our results suggest that mating increases the expression of immune and DNA repair genes in the termite queens and kings, and thus possibly improving their survival during reproductive span due to the omnipresent pathogens.

Increased Ca2+ Transient Underlies RyR2-Related Left Ventricular Noncompaction.

BACKGROUND: A loss-of-function cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) mutation, I4855M+/-, has recently been linked to a new cardiac disorder termed RyR2 Ca2+ release deficiency syndrome (CRDS) as well as left ventricular noncompaction (LVNC). The mechanism by which RyR2 loss-of-function causes CRDS has been extensively studied, but the mechanism underlying RyR2 loss-of-function-associated LVNC is unknown. Here, we determined the impact of a CRDS-LVNC-associated RyR2-I4855M+/- loss-of-function mutation on cardiac structure and function. METHODS: We generated a mouse model expressing the CRDS-LVNC-associated RyR2-I4855M+/- mutation. Histological analysis, echocardiography, ECG recording, and intact heart Ca2+ imaging were performed to characterize the structural and functional consequences of the RyR2-I4855M+/- mutation. RESULTS: As in humans, RyR2-I4855M+/- mice displayed LVNC characterized by cardiac hypertrabeculation and noncompaction. RyR2-I4855M+/- mice were highly susceptible to electrical stimulation-induced ventricular arrhythmias but protected from stress-induced ventricular arrhythmias. Unexpectedly, the RyR2-I4855M+/- mutation increased the peak Ca2+ transient but did not alter the L-type Ca2+ current, suggesting an increase in Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release gain. The RyR2-I4855M+/- mutation abolished sarcoplasmic reticulum store overload-induced Ca2+ release or Ca2+ leak, elevated sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ load, prolonged Ca2+ transient decay, and elevated end-diastolic Ca2+ level upon rapid pacing. Immunoblotting revealed increased level of phosphorylated CaMKII (Ca2+-calmodulin dependent protein kinases II) but unchanged levels of CaMKII, calcineurin, and other Ca2+ handling proteins in the RyR2-I4855M+/- mutant compared with wild type. CONCLUSIONS: The RyR2-I4855M+/- mutant mice represent the first RyR2-associated LVNC animal model that recapitulates the CRDS-LVNC overlapping phenotype in humans. The RyR2-I4855M+/- mutation increases the peak Ca2+ transient by increasing the Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release gain and the end-diastolic Ca2+ level by prolonging Ca2+ transient decay. Our data suggest that the increased peak-systolic and end-diastolic Ca2+ levels may underlie RyR2-associated LVNC.

Super-rational aspiration promotes cooperation in the asymmetric game with peer exit punishment and reward.

Super-rational aspiration induced strategy updating with exit rights has been considered in some previous studies, in which the players adjust strategies in line with their payoffs and aspirations, and they have access to exit the game. However, exit payoffs for exiting players are automatically allocated, which is clearly contrary to reality. In this study, evolutionary cooperation dynamics with super-rational aspiration and asymmetry in the Prisoner's Dilemma game is investigated, where exit payoffs are implemented by local peers. The results show that for different population structures, the asymmetry of the system is always contributive to the participation of the players. Furthermore, we show that under different exit payoffs, super-rationality and asymmetry are conductive to the evolution of cooperation.

Elusive workers are more likely to differentiate into replacement reproductives than aggressive workers in a lower termite.

One of the most intriguing questions in eusocial insects is to understand how the overt reproductive conflict in the colony appears limited when queens or kings are senescent or lost because the morphologically similar individuals in the colony are reproductively totipotent. Whether there are some individuals who preferentially differentiate into replacement reproductives or not has received little attention. The consistent individual behavioral differences (also termed "animal personality") of individuals from the colony can shape cunningly their task and consequently affect the colony fitness but have been rarely investigated in eusocial insects. Here, we used the termite Reticulitermes labralis to investigate if variations in individual personalities (elusiveness and aggressiveness) may predict which individuals will perform reproductive differentiation within colonies. We observed that when we separately reared elusive and aggressive workers, elusive workers differentiate into reproductives significantly earlier than aggressive workers. When we reared them together in the proportions 12:3, 10:5, and 8:7 (aggressive workers: elusive workers), the first reproductives mostly differentiated from the elusive workers, and the reproductives differentiated from the elusive workers significantly earlier than from aggressive workers. Furthermore, we found that the number of workers participating in reproductive differentiation was significantly lower in the groups of both types of workers than in groups containing only elusive workers. Our results demonstrate that the elusiveness trait was a strong predictor of workers' differentiation into replacement reproductives in R. labralis. Moreover, our results suggest that individual personalities within the insect society could play a key role in resolving the overt reproductive conflict.

A Gain-of-function Mutation in the Gating Domain of ITPR1 Impairs Motor Movement and Increases Thermal and Mechanical Sensitivity.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (ITPR1) is an intracellular Ca2+ release channel important for a number of fundamental cellular functions. Consistent with its critical physiological significance, mutations in ITPR1 are associated with disease. Surprisingly, nearly all the disease-associated ITPR1 mutations characterized to date are loss of function. Despite the paucity of ITPR1 gain-of-function (GOF) mutations, enhanced ITPR1 function as a result of dysregulation by ITPR1 interacting proteins is thought to be associated with ataxia, learning and memory impairments, Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression, and chronic pain. However, direct evidence for the role of ITPR1 GOF in disease is lacking. To determine whether GOF in ITPR1 itself has pathological ramifications, we employed a newly developed mouse model expressing an ITPR1 mutation in the gating domain of the channel, D2594K, that markedly increased the channel's sensitivity to activation by IP3. Behavioral studies showed that the ITPR1-D2594K+/- mutant mice displayed motor deficits and reduced muscle strength. However, the ITPR1-D2594K+/- mutation did not significantly alter hippocampal learning and memory and did not change learning and memory impairments when crossed with the 5xFAD AD model mice. On the other hand, ITPR1-D2594K+/- mice exhibited increased sensitivity to thermal and mechanical stimulation compared to WT. Interestingly, R-carvedilol treatment attenuated the enhanced thermal and mechanical nociception in ITPR1-D2594K+/- mice. Thus, the ITPR1-D2594K+/- mutation in the channel's gating domain has a marked impact on motor movements and pain perception, but little effect on hippocampal learning and memory.

RyR2 Serine-2030 PKA Site Governs Ca2+ Release Termination and Ca2+ Alternans.

BACKGROUND: PKA (protein kinase A)-mediated phosphorylation of cardiac RyR2 (ryanodine receptor 2) has been extensively studied for decades, but the physiological significance of PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 remains poorly understood. Recent determination of high-resolution 3-dimensional structure of RyR2 in complex with CaM (calmodulin) reveals that the major PKA phosphorylation site in RyR2, serine-2030 (S2030), is located within a structural pathway of CaM-dependent inactivation of RyR2. This novel structural insight points to a possible role of PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 in CaM-dependent inactivation of RyR2, which underlies the termination of Ca2+ release and induction of cardiac Ca2+ alternans. METHODS: We performed single-cell endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ imaging to assess the impact of S2030 mutations on Ca2+ release termination in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Here we determined the role of the PKA site RyR2-S2030 in a physiological setting, we generated a novel mouse model harboring the S2030L mutation and carried out confocal Ca2+ imaging. RESULTS: We found that mutations, S2030D, S2030G, S2030L, S2030V, and S2030W reduced the endoplasmic reticulum luminal Ca2+ level at which Ca2+ release terminates (the termination threshold), whereas S2030P and S2030R increased the termination threshold. S2030A and S2030T had no significant impact on release termination. Furthermore, CaM-wild-type increased, whereas Ca2+ binding deficient CaM mutant (CaM-M [a loss-of-function CaM mutation with all 4 EF-hand motifs mutated]), PKA, and Ca2+/CaMKII (CaM-dependent protein kinase II) reduced the termination threshold. The S2030L mutation abolished the actions of CaM-wild-type, CaM-M, and PKA, but not CaMKII, in Ca2+ release termination. Moreover, we showed that isoproterenol and CaM-M suppressed pacing-induced Ca2+ alternans and accelerated Ca2+ transient recovery in intact working hearts, whereas CaM-wild-type exerted an opposite effect. The impact of isoproterenol was partially and fully reversed by the PKA inhibitor N-[2-(p-bromocinnamylamino)ethyl]-5-isoquinoline-sulfonamide and the CaMKII inhibitor N-[2-[N-(4-chlorocinnamyl)-N-methylaminomethyl]phenyl]-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide individually and together, respectively. S2030L abolished the impact of CaM-wild-type, CaM-M, and N-[2-(p-bromocinnamylamino)ethyl]-5-isoquinoline-sulfonamide-sensitive component, but not the N-[2-[N-(4-chlorocinnamyl)-N-methylaminomethyl]phenyl]-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide-sensitive component, of isoproterenol.

Path probability selection in nature and path integral.

Understanding of any biological evolutions, such as speciation, adaptation behavior and biodiversity pattern, is based on a fundamental concept of fitness, in which natural selection implies the improvement and progress of fitness in either direct/indirect benefit or genetic transmission to the next generation. However, this basic idea of biological evolution, which is mathematically described by Price equation or its relations, has not fully considered feedback effects from the environment or other generations. They lost the global dynamics of the evolutions consequently. Drawing on the idea of modern physics, we introduce the path integral by iterating the Price equation step by step to characterize the evolutionary path in which the stationary fitness is replaced by the path probability. The evolutionary selection therefore will depend on path probability instead of fitness advantage. In such a framework of the evolutionary path, the intermediate process of evolution is not always pointing to the fitness-maximizing equilibrium and multiple evolutionary paths could thus coexist without fitness advantage discrimination. This mechanism could potentially explain fitness evolutionary strategies with the diversified fitness (e.g., coexistence of altruism and selfishness) and thus species diversity.

A gain-of-function mutation in the ITPR1 gating domain causes male infertility in mice.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 (ITPR1) is an intracellular Ca2+ release channel critical for numerous cellular processes. Despite its ubiquitous physiological significance, ITPR1 mutations have thus far been linked to primarily movement disorders. Surprisingly, most disease-associated ITPR1 mutations generate a loss of function. This leaves our understanding of ITPR1-associated pathology oddly one-sided, as little is known about the pathological consequences of ITPR1 gain of function (GOF). To this end, we generated an ITPR1 gating domain mutation (D2594K) that substantially enhanced the inositol trisphosphate (IP3 )-sensitivity of ITPR1, and a mouse model expressing this ITPR1-D2594K+/- GOF mutation. We found that heterozygous ITPR1-D2594K+/- mutant mice exhibited male infertility, azoospermia, and acrosome loss. Furthermore, we functionally characterized a human ITPR1 variant V494I identified in the UK Biobank database as potentially associated with disorders of the testis. We found that the ITPR1-V494I variant significantly enhanced IP3 -induced Ca2+ release in HEK293 cells. Thus, ITPR1 hyperactivity may increase the risk of testicular dysfunction.

Subcellular localization of hippocampal ryanodine receptor 2 and its role in neuronal excitability and memory.

Ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) is abundantly expressed in the heart and brain. Mutations in RyR2 are associated with both cardiac arrhythmias and intellectual disability. While the mechanisms of RyR2-linked arrhythmias are well characterized, little is known about the mechanism underlying RyR2-associated intellectual disability. Here, we employed a mouse model expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged RyR2 and a specific GFP probe to determine the subcellular localization of RyR2 in hippocampus. GFP-RyR2 was predominantly detected in the soma and dendrites, but not the dendritic spines of CA1 pyramidal neurons or dentate gyrus granular neurons. GFP-RyR2 was also detected within the mossy fibers in the stratum lucidum of CA3, but not in the presynaptic terminals of CA1 neurons. An arrhythmogenic RyR2-R4496C+/- mutation downregulated the A-type K+ current and increased membrane excitability, but had little effect on the afterhyperpolarization current or presynaptic facilitation of CA1 neurons. The RyR2-R4496C+/- mutation also impaired hippocampal long-term potentiation, learning, and memory. These data reveal the precise subcellular distribution of hippocampal RyR2 and its important role in neuronal excitability, learning, and memory.

Environmental stress-discriminatory taxa are associated with high C and N cycling functional potentials in dryland grasslands.

Increasing environmental stress strongly affects soil microbial communities, but the responses of the microbial assembly and the functional potential of the dominant microbial community in the presence of environmental stress in drylands are still poorly understood. Here, we undertook a broad appraisal of the abundance, diversity, similarity, community assembly, network properties and functions of soil microbiomes in 82 dryland grasslands along environmental gradients. We found that the bacterial and fungal diversity and community similarity showed different sensitivities to environmental stress (decreased mean annual precipitation (MAP) and soil nutrient levels and increased soil pH), and MAP was the most important factor influencing microbial community patterns. In addition, the dominant subcommunity of both bacteria and fungi was more sensitive to environmental stress than the nondominant subcommunity. Although increasing environmental stress decreased microbial phylogenetic clustering, it had no effects on the stochastic and deterministic assembly process balance. Moreover, we identified 101 bacterial and 34 fungal environmental stress-discriminatory taxa that were sensitive to environmental stress, and these bacterial markers showed a high correlation with the abundance of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling-related genes, whereas the taxa classified as connectors in the network were mainly correlated with C degradation genes. Our study shows that the different responses of bacteria and fungi to environmental stress bring challenges to predicting microbial function, but a relatively small number of taxa play an important role in driving C and N cycling-related functional genes, indicating that identifying an organism's phenotypic characteristics or traits of key taxa may improve our knowledge of the microbial response to ongoing global changes.

Clinical and Functional Characterization of Ryanodine Receptor 2 Variants Implicated in Calcium-Release Deficiency Syndrome.

Importance: Calcium-release deficiency syndrome (CRDS), which is caused by loss-of-function variants in cardiac ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2), is an emerging cause of ventricular fibrillation. However, the lack of complex polymorphic/bidirectional ventricular tachyarrhythmias during exercise stress testing (EST) may distinguish it from catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT). Recently, in the first clinical series describing the condition, mouse and human studies showed that the long-burst, long-pause, short-coupled ventricular extra stimulus (LBLPS) electrophysiology protocol reliably induced CRDS ventricular arrhythmias. Data from larger populations with CRDS and its associated spectrum of disease are lacking. Objective: To further insight into CRDS through international collaboration. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this multicenter observational cohort study, probands with unexplained life-threatening arrhythmic events and an ultrarare RyR2 variant were identified. Variants were expressed in HEK293 cells and subjected to caffeine stimulation to determine their functional impact. Data were collected from September 1, 2012, to March 6, 2021, and analyzed from August 9, 2015, to March 6, 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: The functional association of RyR2 variants found in putative cases of CRDS and the associated clinical phenotype(s). Results: Of 10 RyR2 variants found in 10 probands, 6 were loss-of-function, consistent with CRDS (p.E4451del, p.F4499C, p.V4606E, p.R4608Q, p.R4608W, and p.Q2275H) (in 4 [67%] male and 2 [33%] female probands; median age at presentation, 22 [IQR, 8-34] years). In 5 probands with a documented trigger, 3 were catecholamine driven. During EST, 3 probands with CRDS had no arrhythmias, 1 had a monomorphic couplet, and 2 could not undergo EST (deceased). Relatives of the decedents carrying the RyR2 variant did not have EST results consistent with CPVT. After screening 3 families, 13 relatives were diagnosed with CRDS, including 3 with previous arrhythmic events (23%). None had complex ventricular tachyarrhythmias during EST. Among the 19 confirmed cases with CRDS, 10 had at least 1 life-threatening event at presentation and/or during a median follow-up of 7 (IQR, 6-18) years. Two of the 3 device-detected ventricular fibrillation episodes were induced by a spontaneous LBLPS-like sequence. ß-Blockers were used in 16 of 17 surviving patients (94%). Three of 16 individuals who were reportedly adherent to ß-blocker therapy (19%) had breakthrough events. Conclusions and Relevance: The results of this study suggest that calcium-release deficiency syndrome due to RyR2 loss-of-function variants mechanistically and phenotypically differs from CPVT. Ventricular fibrillation may be precipitated by a spontaneous LBLPS-like sequence of ectopy; however, CRDS remains difficult to recognize clinically. These data highlight the need for better diagnostic tools and treatments for this emerging condition.

Provocation Testing and Therapeutic Response in a Newly Described Channelopathy: RyR2 Calcium Release Deficiency Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: A novel familial arrhythmia syndrome, cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) calcium release deficiency syndrome (CRDS), has recently been described. We evaluated a large and well characterized family to assess provocation testing, risk factor stratification and response to therapy in CRDS. METHODS: We present a family with multiple unheralded sudden cardiac deaths and aborted cardiac arrests, primarily in children and young adults, with no clear phenotype on standard clinical testing. RESULTS: Genetic analysis, including whole genome sequencing, firmly established that a missense mutation in RYR2, Ala4142Thr, was the underlying cause of disease in the family. Functional study of the variant in a cell model showed RyR2 loss-of-function, indicating that the family was affected by CRDS. EPS (Electrophysiological Study) was undertaken in 9 subjects known to carry the mutation, including a survivor of aborted sudden cardiac death, and the effects of flecainide alone and in combination with metoprolol were tested. There was a clear gradation in inducibility of nonsustained and sustained ventricular arrhythmia between subjects at EPS, with the survivor of aborted sudden cardiac death being the most inducible subject. Administration of flecainide substantially reduced arrhythmia inducibility in this subject and abolished arrhythmia in all others. Finally, the effects of additional metoprolol were tested; it increased inducibility in 4/9 subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The Ala4142Thr mutation of RYR2 causes the novel heritable arrhythmia syndrome CRDS, which is characterized by familial sudden death in the absence of prior symptoms or a recognizable phenotype on ambulatory monitoring or exercise stress testing. We increase the experience of a specific EPS protocol in human subjects and show that it is helpful in establishing the clinical status of gene carriers, with potential utility for risk stratification. Our data provide evidence that flecainide is protective in human subjects with CRDS, consistent with the effect previously shown in a mouse model.

Human RyR2 (Ryanodine Receptor 2) Loss-of-Function Mutations: Clinical Phenotypes and In Vitro Characterization.

[Figure: see text].

Experimentally measured group direct benefits according to worker density explain group living of the termite Reticulitermes chinensis.

The evolution of cooperation requires more benefits of group living than solitary lifestyle. However, to some degree, our understanding about the benefits is hindered by abstract debates over theoretical and experimental evidences of individual selection or group selection because it is difficult to examine the actual benefits at the group level. Moreover, group density is a crucial ecological factor which deeply affects group reproduction and survival, few studies have been performed in social insects. Here, we study the effects of worker density on group direct benefits in the termite species Reticulitermes chinensis. The termite R. chinensis is an ideal model which lives with a high worker density in wood. We used the quantity of eggs and the total biomass (biomass of all group members) accumulation as two components of group benefits. We investigated the group benefits in the context of worker density according to eleven worker densities, and we measured the group benefits and the resource consumption with the same group members in two types of artificial nest areas. Moreover, we counted the stomodeal trophallaxis occurrences from any workers to queens under three worker densities to explore the degree of cooperation according to worker density. We found that both the number of eggs and the total biomass accumulation significantly increased with increasing worker density in groups. Furthermore, the consumption of resources was similar between groups with the same number of individuals gathered in small or large nest areas, but the production of eggs and the biomass accumulation were higher in groups of small nest areas than in large nest areas. Additionally, we found the stomodeal trophallaxis behavior significantly increased in higher worker density groups. Our results suggest that the group benefits influenced by the high worker density may at least partially explain the group living of eusocial insects in ecology.

Super-rational aspiration induced strategy updating helps resolve the tragedy of the commons in a cooperation system with exit rights.

Avoiding the tragedy of the commons requires altruists to incur some losses to benefit the group. Although specific rules and self-enforcing agreements could help maintain the cooperation system stable, the costly recognition and free-rider problem are still questioned these two cooperation maintenance mechanisms. We here considered the situation of both exit costs and exit benefits in the asymmetric prisoner's dilemma game and introduced a super-rational aspiration induced strategy updating, where players adjust strategies in line with their payoffs and aspirations. If their payoffs reach or exceed the aspiration levels, which may be rational or super-rational, they keep their strategies. Otherwise, they imitate a local neighbor's strategy. We explored this rule in the structured and well-mixed population. The results show that super-rationality and asymmetry could together promote cooperation when exit costs exist. With exit benefit, super-rationality promotes cooperation in both structures and asymmetry only works in the well-mixed population. This suggests that the introduced strategy updating rule could sustain cooperation among egoists with exit rights.