The psychological health of "joiners".

The current study examined the relationship between scores on social complexity and psychological health. A sample of 202 college students yielded positive correlations for propensity to join and maintain memberships in diverse groups with psychological health, thereby replicating past research.

Perceptions of power in a first-year collegiate varsity program.

Analysis of perceptions of a coach's power in a first-year collegiate athletic program showed strong similarities between the current data and previously published reports of perceptions of power in established athletic programs.

Family motivation and a more accurate classification of preferences for aggressive sports.

In previous research there were no significant differences in family motivation between individuals with a preference for aggressive sports and those with a preference for nonaggressive sports. The current study replicated the past research with a more valid method of classifying participants into the sport-preference groups. 82 participants completed the Family Motivation Subscale of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale and listed their five favorite sports. As predicted, correlations indicated no significant relationships between preferences for aggressive sports and strength of family motivation.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally following a sport team and team identification.

Research indicates that both highly and lowly identified fans are more likely to be intrinsically than extrinsically motivated and that highly identified fans have a particularly strong inclination for intrinsic motivation. The current investigation was designed to extend this work by examining the relationship between level of identification and one's intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally following a sport team. Preference for intrinsic motives for originally following a team should be highest among those high on team identification. 88 participants completed questionnaires containing the Sport Spectator Identification Scale and items assessing their intrinsic and extrinsic motives for originally identifying with a team. Analyses provided clear support for the hypotheses.

Controllability and stability in the self-serving attributions of sport spectators.

Spectators often attribute their athletic team's victories to internal causes and its losses to external causes (e.g., A. H. Hastorf & H. Cantril, 1954; R. R. Lau, 1984; L. Mann, 1974). This self-serving attributional pattern is most common among fans with a strong psychological attachment to their team (D. L. Wann & T. J. Dolan, 1994). The authors examined the relationships among identification, game outcome, and controllable and stable attributions. Their 1st hypothesis was that high-identification fans after a victory, compared with high-identification fans after a loss and low-identification fans after either outcome, would be more likely to exhibit self-serving attributional patterns by attributing their team's successes to controllable and stable causes. Their 2nd hypothesis was that high-identification fans would be more likely than low-identification fans to attribute their team's successes to internal causes and its failures to external causes. U.S. college students high and low in identification first watched their university's men's basketball team win or lose a contest and then completed measures of identification and attribution. The results confirmed the hypotheses.

Preliminary investigation of the confidence of sport spectators: importance of time, difficulty of the game, and team identification.

Three factors believed to play a role in the confidence sport spectors have in their team were examined: time until the competition began, the difficulty of the competition, and the fans' scores on identification with the team. 31 college students were asked to complete the Confidence subscale of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 on five separate occasions: 3 days before, 12 hours before, 3 hours before, immediately prior to, and at half-time of two basketball contests. Subjects also completed the Sport Spectator Identification Scale during the first testing session. Analysis indicated that subjects' confidence changed significantly as the competition approached but only for the more difficult contest. Further, highly and lowly identified subjects exhibited different patterns of confidence as the difficult competition approached.

Relationship between identification with the role of sport fan and trait aggression.

The current research was designed to test the hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between people's identification of themselves as sport fans and trait aggression. 70 participants were asked to complete the Sport Fandom Questionnaire to assess their fandom and the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory to assess their trait aggression. As expected, no significant relationship between fandom and aggression was found.

Further validation of the economic subscale of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale.

The current investigation further validated the Economic, i.e., gambling, subscale of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale as subscale scores were highly correlated with both estimates of gambling frequency and estimates of money wagered by 91 college students.

Relationship between aesthetic motivation and preferences for aggressive and nonaggressive sports.

Two studies were designed to replicate the finding that people scoring high on aesthetic motivation, as measured by Wann's Sport Fan Motivation Scale, tend to prefer nonaggressive sports. Study 1 correlated 75 college students' scores on aesthetic motivation with their enjoyment of watching aggressive sports. Study 2 correlated 44 college students' scores on aesthetic motivation with their enjoyment of watching a series of aggressive football plays. Neither study replicated the previous finding that people high on aesthetic motivation tend to prefer nonaggressive sports, suggesting that the earlier finding was an artifact of the method used.

Family status, preference for sport aggressiveness, and sport fan motivation.

This study tested two hypotheses involving the use of sport spectating as an opportunity to spend time with one's family. First, it was hypothesized that scores on Family Motivation would be higher for fans who were married or had children than for unmarried fans without children. Second, it was predicted that among sport fans who were married or had children, those preferring a Nonaggressive sport would report higher scores on Family Motivation than those preferring an Aggressive sport. Analysis confirmed the first hypothesis while refuting the second.

Language of sport fans: sportugese revisited.

In 1959, Tannenbaum and Noah reported that sports writers and readers possessed a better understanding of sport terminology than nonreaders. The current investigation extended Tannenbaum and Noah's research using current sport terms. A positive relationship between understanding sport terminology, extent of team identification, strength of sport fandom, and self-proclaimed sport knowledge was hypothesized. Scores of 57 participants confirmed the predicted pattern. Discussion concerned research examining sport terminology.

Reduction of anxiety about death: need for beliefs about immortality.

It was hypothesized that individuals who are reminded of their own mortality will experience anxiety which is reduced by an increased need for belief in immortality. A questionnaire assessing the need for literal and two forms of symbolic immortality was developed. Analysis showed that awareness of mortality increased scores on the need for literal immortality but not on either form of symbolic immortality.

Influence of level of identification with a group and physiological arousal on perceived intergroup complexity.

Influence of group identification and physiological arousal on perceived intergroup complexity and intergroup evaluations were investigated. Group identification was examined because persons with differing levels of identification differ in the degree to which they possess stereotypes about groups while physiological arousal was investigated because of its known ability to limit cognitive capacity and potentially encourage the use of stereotypes. Specifically, increases in incidental arousal resulting from exercise were expected to result in increased stereotype use, reflected in differential intergroup complexity. This effect was expected only for those high in identification with the in-group, for whom stereotypes were available. The results supported the predictions. In terms of group evaluations, an in-group favouritism effect was found, although it was only exhibited by those high in identification. Arousal level did not significantly influence evaluation of groups. Thus, incidental arousal can decrease complexity, without simultaneously increasing negativity. Discussion focuses on the differences between the current method and those employed in past research.

Peripheral ingroup membership status and public negativity toward outgroups.

Peripheral membership status in a desirable ingroup was predicted to elevate outgroup derogation when Ss believed other ingroup members might learn of their responses. Less negativity toward outgroups was expected when peripheral members' responses were to remain private. Core ingroup members, in contrast, were not expected to show public-private differences in derogation of outgroups. The results of 2 experiments supported these predictions, with peripheral but not core ingroup members advocating the most coercion for the outgroup under public conditions in both laboratory-created ingroups (Experiment 1) and naturally occurring groups that had meaning for the participants (Experiment 2). Thus, outgroup derogation can serve a public presentation function that allows for enhancement of an insecure status within a desirable ingroup.

The "noble" sports fan: the relationships between team identification, self-esteem, and aggression.

Authors have disagreed on whether sports spectating has positive or negative consequences for individuals and society. Based on Smith's 1988 discussion of "the noble sports fan," the current research tested the prediction that identification with a sports team would be positively related to collective or group's self-esteem and not related to trait scores of aggression. The hypothesis was confirmed. Discussion centers on patterns of the observed correlations.