Towards the Development of a Smart Detergent with Enhanced Safety and Efficiency for Pesticide Residue Removal from Fruits and Vegetables.

The research focused on the development and evaluation of special detergents for washing fruits and vegetables, with the primary emphasis on removing pesticide residues. The research aimed to improve food safety and meet consumer preferences for effective cleaning of food products. Using the cloud point characteristic of non-ionic surfactants, a 'smart' detergent was developed to adapt to typical washing conditions. Optimization of the detergent system composition was conducted and the properties of the surfactant system in relation to the cloud point were investigated to highlight the importance of precise control over detergent behavior in response to temperature changes. The physicochemical properties study of the model washing baths included surface tension, aggregate size, solubilization properties, and foaming ability. A model detergent, tailored for both cleaning efficacy and safety against the skin, was developed. Washing efficacy tests demonstrated the superior ability of the designed detergent to remove pesticide residues, eliminating consumer concerns and promoting healthier and safer food consumption. The conducted research paves the way for innovative and safe detergents for washing fruits and vegetables, thereby increasing food safety and consumer satisfaction.

Kombucha fermentation as a modern way of processing vineyard by-products into cosmetic raw materials.

OBJECTIVE: The wine industry generates large quantities of by-products presenting a remarkably valuable composition in phytochemicals. The process that can significantly increase the content of bioactive compounds is fermentation by yeast and other microorganisms. The current study presents, for the first time, an evaluation of the potential of grape stems extract and its ferments using the Scoby consortium, as a cosmetic raw material for improving the skin care properties of facial cosmetics. METHODS: Fermentation of grape stems using Scoby consortium was carried out for 10 and 20 days. Unfermented and fermented extracts were analysed for their antioxidant activity and chemical composition, with a particular emphasis on biologically active substances. Additionally, the influence of the addition of the obtained ferments to the model cosmetic creams on hydration, transepidermal water loss and skin pH were assessed. RESULTS: The obtained results revealed that grape stems extract and its ferments are a rich source of phenolic compounds and show antioxidant activity, with the highest values observed for extracts on the 20th day of fermentation. Furthermore, the addition of the extract, as well as ferment, to the cream has a positive effect on skin hydration and reduces transepidermal water loss. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that grape stem extracts are a prospective source of active compounds that may be valuable ingredients for the cosmetic industry. Unfermented and fermented extracts can be used in moisturizing cosmetic formulations and also to complement the treatment of dry and sensitive skin.

OBJECTIF: L'industrie du vin génère de grandes quantités de sous-produits présentant une composition remarquablement précieuse en matière de phytochimie. Le procédé susceptible d'augmenter significativement la teneur en composés bioactifs est la fermentation par la levure et d'autres micro-organismes. Cette étude présente pour la première fois une évaluation du potentiel de l'extrait de rafle de raisin et de ses ferments réalisés à l'aide du consortium Scoby lors de l'utilisation en matière première pour améliorer les propriétés de soin cutané des cosmétiques du visage. MÉTHODES: La fermentation des rafles de raisin a été réalisée à l'aide du consortium Scoby pendant 10 et 20 jours. L'activité antioxydante et la composition chimique des extraits non fermentés et fermentés a été analysée en mettant l'accent sur les substances biologiquement actives. En outre, l'évaluation a également porté sur l'influence de l'ajout des ferments obtenus aux crèmes cosmétiques types sur l'hydratation, la perte d'eau transépidermique et le pH cutané. RÉSULTATS: Les résultats obtenus ont révélé que l'extrait de rafles et ses ferments représentaient une source riche en composés phénoliques et montraient une activité antioxydante ; les valeurs les plus élevées des extraits étant observées au 20 -ème jour de fermentation. En outre, l'ajout de l'extrait et du ferment à la crème entraîne un effet positif sur l'hydratation de la peau et réduit la perte d'eau transépidermique. CONCLUSION: Ces résultats suggèrent que les extraits de rafles représentent une source prospective de composés actifs et peuvent constituer des principes actifs précieux pour l'industrie cosmétique. Il est possible d'utiliser des extraits non fermentés et fermentés dans les formulations cosmétiques hydratantes et pour compléter le traitement des peaux sèches et sensibles.

Evaluation of Linkers' Influence on Peptide-Based Piezoelectric Biosensors' Sensitivity to Aldehydes in the Gas Phase.

Recent findings qualified aldehydes as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis. One of the possibilities is to use electrochemical biosensors in point-of-care (PoC), but these need further development to overcome some limitations. Currently, the primary goal is to enhance their metrological parameters in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. Previous findings indicate that peptide OBPP4 (KLLFDSLTDLKKKMSEC-NH2) is a promising candidate for further development of aldehyde-sensitive biosensors. To increase the affinity of a receptor layer to long-chain aldehydes, a structure stabilization of the peptide active site via the incorporation of different linkers was studied. Indeed, the incorporation of linkers improved sensitivity to and binding of aldehydes in comparison to that of the original peptide-based biosensor. The tendency to adopt disordered structures was diminished owing to the implementation of suitable linkers. Therefore, to improve the metrological characteristics of peptide-based piezoelectric biosensors, linkers were added at the C-terminus of OBPP4 peptide (KLLFDSLTDLKKKMSE-linker-C-NH2). Those linkers consist of proteinogenic amino acids from group one: glycine, L-proline, L-serine, and non proteinogenic amino acids from group two: ß-alanine, 4-aminobutyric acid, and 6-aminohexanoic acid. Linkers were evaluated with in silico studies, followed by experimental verification. All studied linkers enhanced the detection of aldehydes in the gas phase. The highest difference in frequency (60 Hz, nonanal) was observed between original peptide-based biosensors and ones based on peptides modified with the GSGSGS linker. It allowed evaluation of the limit of detection for nonanal at the level of 2 ppm, which is nine times lower than that of the original peptide. The highest sensitivity values were also obtained for the GSGSGS linker: 0.3312, 0.4281, and 0.4676 Hz/ppm for pentanal, octanal, and nonanal, respectively. An order of magnitude increase in sensitivity was observed for the six linkers used. Generally, the linker's rigidity and the number of amino acid residues are much more essential for biosensors' metrological characteristics than the amino acid sequence itself. It was found that the longer the linkers, the better the effect on docking efficiency.

Effect of Talc Particle Size in Detergents for Fruits and Vegetables on the Ability to Remove Pesticide Residues.

Detergents containing abrasive talc particles for washing fruits and vegetables were designed and investigated. Detergent prototypes were developed with the following composition: 40% talc particles, 1.5% surfactants, 5% ethyl alcohol, 1% sodium citrate, 1% sodium carbonate, 1.5% glycerin, and 0.5% preservative. Xanthan gum (0.5% concentration) was used as a viscosity modifier to stabilize the dispersion of talc particles. Three types of detergent prototypes were prepared, differing in the size of the talc particles. The following fractions were used: 50-125, 250-500, and 710-1000 µm. The particle size effect on the effectiveness of the removal of surface pesticide residues was investigated. A specially developed methodology was used. Three types of pesticides (boscalid, acetamiprid, and pyraclostrobin) were applied to a cherry tomato, tangerine, and cucumber, and then a model washing process was performed using the developed detergents. The changes in the pesticide content on the surface of fruit and vegetables were assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detergents with talc particles of sizes 50-125 and 250-500 µm were more efficient in the removal of pesticide residues from the surface of fruit and vegetables compared to detergents with 710-1000 µm talc particles.

Structural, Mechanical and Flammability Characterization of Crosslinked Talc Composites with Different Particle Sizes.

The influence of filler particle size on selected physicochemical and functional properties of polymer composites was analyzed. The following test was carried out for the system: the bisphenol A glycerolate (1 glycerol/phenol) di-methacrylate (BPA.DM) was subjected to UV-polymerization in bulk with N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (NVP) as a polymer matrix and talc with particle sizes ranging from ≤8 to 710 µm as a non-toxic and cheap mineral filler. An effective method of preparing cross-linked polymeric composites with talc was developed. The obtained samples were subjected to structural analysis and the thermal, mechanical and flammability properties were assessed. It has been empirically confirmed that the talc particles are incorporated into the composite structure. However, with increasing particle size, the composite heterogeneity increases. In the case of the developed method of sample production, homogeneous systems were obtained for particles in the ≤8-250 µm range. The surface roughness of the samples correlates directly with the size of talc particles. The value of Young's modulus during the axial stretching of samples decreases with the increasing size of talc particles. For the composites containing ≤15 and ≤35 µm talc particles, the highest values were obtained under bending conditions. There was no equivocal effect of particle size on the composites' swelling in water. The addition of talc reduces the flame height and intensity slightly. The biggest difference was obtained for the composites containing relatively large talc particles. It was proved that the selected properties of polymer composites can be controlled depending on the size of the talc particles.

Application of Levan-Rich Digestate Extract in the Production of Safe-to-Use and Functional Natural Body Wash Cosmetics.

The study focused on the evaluation of the possibility of using a levan-rich digestate extract in the production of safe and functional body wash cosmetics. Model shower gels were designed and formulated on the basis of raw materials of natural origin. Prepared prototypes contained various extract concentrations (16.7; 33; 50%). A gel without extract was used as a reference. The samples were evaluated for their safety in use and functionality. The results showed that the use of high-concentration levan-rich digestate extract in a shower gel resulted in a significant reduction in the negative impact on the skin. For example, the zein value decreased by over 50% in relation to the preparation without the extract. An over 40% reduction in the emulsifying capacity of hydrophobic substances was also demonstrated, which reduces skin dryness after the washing process. However, the presence of the extract did not significantly affect the parameters related to functionality. Overall, it was indicated that levan-rich digestate extract can be successfully used as a valuable ingredient in natural cleansing cosmetics.

Development and Assessment of Regeneration Methods for Peptide-Based QCM Biosensors in VOCs Analysis Applications.

Cleaning a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) plays a crucial role in the regeneration of its biosensors for reuse. Imprecise removal of a receptor layer from a transducer's surface can lead to unsteady operation during measurements. This article compares three approaches to regeneration of the piezoelectric transducers using the electrochemical, oxygen plasma and Piranha solution methods. Optimization of the cleaning method allowed for evaluation of the influence of cleaning on the surface of regenerated biosensors. The effectiveness of cleaning the QCM transducers with a receptor layer in the form of a peptide with the KLLFDSLTDLKKKMSEC-NH2 sequence was described. Preliminary cleaning was tested for new electrodes to check the potential impact of the cleaning on deposition and the transducer's operation parameters. The effectiveness of the cleaning was assessed via the measurement of a resonant frequency of the QCM transducers. Based on changes in the resonant frequency and the Sauerbrey equation, it was possible to evaluate the changes in mass adsorption on the transducer's surface. Moreover, the morphology of the QCM transducer's surface subjected to the selected cleaning techniques was presented with AFM imaging. The presented results confirm that each method is suitable for peptide-based biosensors cleaning. However, the most invasive seems to be the Piranha method, with the greatest decrease in performance after regeneration cycles (25% after three cycles). The presented techniques were evaluated for their efficiency with respect to a selected volatile compound, which in the future should allow reuse of the biosensors in particular applications, contributing to cost reduction and extension of the sensors' lifetime.

Sustainable Green Processing of Grape Pomace Using Micellar Extraction for the Production of Value-Added Hygiene Cosmetics.

This study sought to evaluate the possibility of using grape pomace, a waste material from wine production, for the preparation of cosmetic components. Following the existing clear research trend related to improving the safety of cleansing cosmetics, an attempt was made to determine the possibility of preparing model shower gels based on grape pomace extract. A new method for producing cosmetic components named loan chemical extraction (LCE) was developed and is described for the first time in this paper. In the LCE method, an extraction medium consisting only of the components from the final product was used. Thus, there were no additional substances in the cosmetics developed, and the formulation was significantly enriched with compounds isolated from grape pomace. Samples of the model shower gels produced were evaluated in terms of their basic parameters related to functionality (e.g., foaming properties, rheological characteristics, color) and their effect on the skin. The results obtained showed that the extracts based on waste grape pomace contained a number of valuable cosmetic compounds (e.g., organic acids, phenolic compounds, amino acids and sugars), and the model products basis on them provided colorful and safe natural cosmetics.

Flower Extracts as Multifunctional Dyes in the Cosmetics Industry.

Flowers are a natural source of bioactive compounds that not only have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties, but can also be used as natural dyes. For this reason, nowadays plants are widely used to produce natural cosmetics and foods. In these studies, the properties of the water extracts of Papaver rhoeas L., Punica granatum L., Clitoria ternatea L., Carthamus tinctorius L., and Gomphrena globosa L., as bioactive, natural dyes, were investigated. Plant flower extracts were tested for their antioxidant (ABTS and DPPH radical methods) and anti-inflammatory effects by determining the ability to inhibit the activity of lipoxygenase and proteinase. The extracts were tested for their cytotoxic effect on skin cells, using Alamar Blue and Neutral Red tests. The ability to inhibit the activity of enzymes responsible for the destruction of elastin and collagen was also studied. Research has shown that extracts have no toxic effect on skin cells, are a rich source of antioxidants and show the ability to inhibit the activity of elastase and collagenase enzymes. P. rhoeas extract showed the strongest antioxidant properties with IC50 value of 24.8 ± 0.42 µg/mL and 47.5 ± 1.01 µg/mL in ABTS and DPPH tests, respectively. The tested plants are also characterized by an anti-inflammatory property, for which the ability to inhibit lipoxygenase at a level above 80% and proteinase at the level of about 55% was noted. Extracts from P. rhoeas, C. ternatea, and C. tinctorius show the strongest coloring ability and can permanently dye cosmetic products, without significant color changes during the storage of the product.

Correlations between the Type of Aggregates in the Bulk Phase and the Functionality and Safety of All-Purpose Cleaners.

The article shows that the type and concentration of inorganic salt can be translated into the structure of the bulk phase and the performance properties of ecological all-purpose cleaners (APC). A base APC formulation was developed. Thereafter, two types of salt (sodium chloride and magnesium chloride) were added at various concentrations to obtain different structures in the bulk phase. The salt addition resulted in the formation of spherical micelles and-upon addition of more electrolyte-of aggregates having a lamellar structure. The formulations had constant viscosities (ab. 500 mPa·s), comparable to those of commercial products. Essential physical-chemical and performance properties of the four formulations varying in salt types and concentrations were evaluated. It was found that the addition of magnesium salt resulted in more favorable characteristics due to the surface activity of the formulations, which translated into adequately high wettability of the investigated hydrophobic surfaces, and their ability to emulsify fat. A decreasing relationship was observed in foaming properties: higher salt concentrations lead to worse foaming properties and foam stability of the solutions. For the magnesium chloride composition, the effect was significantly more pronounced, as compared to the sodium chloride-based formulations. As far as safety of use is concerned, the formulations in which magnesium salt was used caused a much lesser irritation compared with the other investigated formulations. The zein value was observed to decrease with increasing concentrations of the given type of salt in the composition.

Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Properties of Plant Extract from Dry Flowers as Functional Dyes for Cosmetic Products.

Nowadays, natural dyes are expected by the cosmetic and food industries. In contrast to synthetic dyes, colorants derived from natural sources are more environmentally friendly and safer for human health. In this work, plant extracts from Gomphrena globasa L., Clitoria ternatea L., Carthamus tinctorius L., Punica granatum L. and Papaver rhoeas L. as the natural and functional dyes for the cosmetics industry were assessed. Cytotoxicity on keratinocyte and fibroblast cell lines was determined as well as antioxidant and anti-aging properties by determining their ability to inhibit the activity of collagenase and elastase enzymes. In addition, the composition of the extracts was determined. The obtained extracts were also applied in face cream formulation and color analyses were performed. It has been shown that the obtained extracts were characterized by no cytotoxicity and a high antioxidant potential. The extracts also show strong ability to inhibit the activity of collagenase and moderate ability to inhibit elastase and provide effective and long-lasting hydration after their application on the skin. Application analyses showed that the extracts of P. rhoeas L., C. ternatea L. and C. tinctorius L. can be used as effective cosmetic dyes that allow for attainment of an intense and stable color during the storage of the product. The extracts of P. granatum L. and G. globasa L., despite their beneficial effects as active ingredients, did not work effectively as cosmetic dyes, because cosmetic emulsions with these extracts did not differ significantly in color from emulsions without the extract.

Application of QCM in Peptide and Protein-Based Drug Product Development.

AT-cut quartz crystals vibrating in the thickness-shear mode (TSM), especially quartz crystal resonators (QCRs), are well known as very efficient mass sensitive systems because of their sensitivity, accuracy, and biofunctionalization capacity. They are highly reliable in the measurement of the mass of deposited samples, in both gas and liquid matrices. Moreover, they offer real-time monitoring, as well as relatively low production and operation costs. These features make mass sensitive systems applicable in a wide range of different applications, including studies on protein and peptide primary packaging, formulation, and drug product manufacturing process development. This review summarizes the information on some particular implementations of quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) instruments in protein and peptide drug product development as well as their future prospects.

Moringa oleifera L. Extracts as Bioactive Ingredients That Increase Safety of Body Wash Cosmetics.

The work attempts to obtain a multifunctional plant extract derived from Moringa tree leaves. Obtained results indicate a strong antioxidant potential of the tested extracts. It was shown that Moringa oleifera leaf extract is a rich source of flavonoid and phenolic compounds. Furthermore, it shows a strong antioxidant activity by scavenging free radicals. In vitro toxicity studies showed that the tested extracts in concentrations up to 5% showed a positive effect on cell proliferation and metabolism and may contribute to the reduction of oxidative stress in cells. It was noted that the tested model formulation of cosmetic (1% SCS) with the addition of different types of extracts might contribute to the reduction of skin irritation and improve the safety of the product.

Bioelectronic tongue: Current status and perspectives.

In the course of evolution, nature has endowed humans with systems for the recognition of a wide range of tastes with a sensitivity and selectivity which are indispensable for the evaluation of edibility and flavour attributes. Inspiration by a biological sense of taste has become a basis for the design of instruments, operation principles and parameters enabling to mimic the unique properties of their biological precursors. In response to the demand for fast, sensitive and selective techniques of flavouring analysis, devices belonging to the group of bioelectronic tongues (B-ETs) have been designed. They combine achievements of chemometric analysis employed for many years in electronic tongues (ETs), with unique properties of bio-inspired materials, such as natural taste receptors (TRs) regarding receptor/ligand affinity. Investigations of the efficiency of the prototype devices create new application possibilities and suggest successful implementation in real applications. With advances in the field of biotechnology, microfluidics and nanotechnologies, many exciting developments have been made in the design of B-ETs in the last five years or so. The presented characteristics of the recent design solutions, application possibilities, critical evaluation of potentialities and limitations as well as the outline of further development prospects related to B-ETs should contribute to the systematisation and expansion of our knowledge.

A Highly Selective Biosensor Based on Peptide Directly Derived from the HarmOBP7 Aldehyde Binding Site.

This paper presents the results of research on determining the optimal length of a peptide chain to effectively bind octanal molecules. Peptides that map the aldehyde binding site in HarmOBP7 were immobilized on piezoelectric transducers. Based on computational studies, four Odorant Binding Protein-derived Peptides (OBPPs) with different sequences were selected. Molecular modelling results of ligand docking with selected peptides were correlated with experimental results. The use of low-molecular synthetic peptides, instead of the whole protein, enabled the construction OBPPs-based biosensors. This work aims at developing a biomimetic piezoelectric OBPPs sensor for selective detection of octanal. Moreover, the research is concerned with the ligand binding affinity depending on different peptides' chain lengths. The authors believe that the chain length can have a substantial influence on the type and effectiveness of peptide-ligand interaction. A confirmation of in silico investigation results is the correlation with the experimental results, which shows that the highest affinity to octanal is exhibited by the longest peptide (OBPP4 - KLLFDSLTDLKKKMSEC-NH2). We hypothesized that the binding of long chain aldehydes to the peptide, mimicking the binding site of HarmOBP7, induced a conformational change in the peptide deposited on a selected transducer. The constructed OBPP4-based biosensors were able to selectively bind octanal in the gas phase. It was also shown that the sensors were characterized by high selectivity with respect to octanal, as well as to acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde. The results indicate that the OBPP4 peptide, mimicking the binding domain in the Odorant Binding Protein, can provide new opportunities for the development of biomimicking materials in the field of odor biosensors.

Critical review of electronic nose and tongue instruments prospects in pharmaceutical analysis.

Electronic nose (enose, EN) and electronic tongue (etongue, ET) have been designed to simulate human senses of smell and taste in the best possible way. The signals acquired from a sensor array, combined with suitable data analysis system, are the basis for holistic analysis of samples. The efficiency of these instruments, regarding classification, discrimination, detection, monitoring and analytics of samples in different types of matrices, is utilized in many fields of science and industry, offering numerous practical applications. Popularity of both types of devices significantly increased during the last decade, mainly due to improvement of their sensitivity and selectivity. The electronic senses have been employed in pharmaceutical sciences for, among others, formulation development and quality assurance. This paper contains a review of some particular applications of EN and ET based instruments in pharmaceutical industry. In addition, development prospects and a critical summary of the state of art in the field were also surveyed.

Evaluation of Three Peptide Immobilization Techniques on a QCM Surface Related to Acetaldehyde Responses in the Gas Phase.

The quartz-crystal microbalance is a sensitive and universal tool for measuring concentrations of various gases in the air. Biochemical functionalization of the QCM electrode allows a label-free detection of specific molecular interactions with high sensitivity and specificity. In addition, it enables a real-time determination of its kinetic rates and affinity constants. This makes QCM a versatile bioanalytical screening tool for various applications, with surface modifications ranging from the detection of single molecular monolayers to whole cells. Various types of biomaterials, including peptides mapping the binding sites of olfactory receptors, can be deposited as a sensitive element on the surface of the electrodes. One of key ways to ensure the sensitivity and accuracy of the sensor is provided by application of an optimal and repeatable method of immobilization. Therefore, effective sensors operation requires development of an optimal method of deposition. This paper reviews popular techniques (drop-casting, spin-coating, dip-coating) for coating peptides on piezoelectric crystals surface. Peptide (LEKKKKDC-NH2) derived from an aldehyde binding site in the HarmOBP7 protein was synthesized and used as a sensing material for the biosensor. The degree of deposition of the sensitive layer was monitoring by variations in the sensors frequency. The highest mass threshold for QCM measurements for peptides was approximately 16.43 µg·mm-2 for spin coating method. Developed sensor exhibited repeatable response to acetaldehyde. Moreover, responses to toluene was observed to evaluate sensors specificity. Calibration curves of the three sensors showed good determination coefficients (R² > 0.99) for drop casting and dip coating and 0.97 for the spin-coating method. Sensors sensitivity vs. acetaldehyde were significantly higher for the dip-coating and drop-casting methods and lower for spin-coating one.

Different Ways to Apply a Measurement Instrument of E-Nose Type to Evaluate Ambient Air Quality with Respect to Odour Nuisance in a Vicinity of Municipal Processing Plants.

This review paper presents different ways to apply a measurement instrument of e-nose type to evaluate ambient air with respect to detection of the odorants characterized by unpleasant odour in a vicinity of municipal processing plants. An emphasis was put on the following applications of the electronic nose instruments: monitoring networks, remote controlled robots and drones as well as portable devices. Moreover, this paper presents commercially available sensors utilized in the electronic noses and characterized by the limit of quantification below 1 ppm v/v, which is close to the odour threshold of some odorants. Additionally, information about bioelectronic noses being a possible alternative to electronic noses and their principle of operation and application potential in the field of air evaluation with respect to detection of the odorants characterized by unpleasant odour was provided.

Hydrophilic Dogwood Extracts as Materials for Reducing the Skin Irritation Potential of Body Wash Cosmetics.

A significant problem related to the use of surfactants in body wash cosmetics is their propensity to trigger skin irritations. Only scarce literature exists on the effect of plant extracts on the skin irritation potential. The present study is an attempt to determine the effect of hydrophilic dogwood extracts on the irritant potential of body wash gels. Extractants used in the study were water and mixtures of water with glycerine, water with trimethylglycine (betaine), and water with plant-derived glycol (propanediol). The basic biochemical properties, i.e., the ability to neutralize free radicals, and the content of polyphenols, anthocyanins and flavonoids, were determined. An attempt was undertaken to analyze the impact of the extract added to natural body wash gel formulations on product properties. The skin irritation potential was assessed by determining the zein number and the increase in the pH level of the bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution. The viscosity and foaming ability of the resulting products were evaluated. The studies revealed that an addition of dogwood extract contributes to an improvement in the properties of body wash gels and significantly increases the safety of product use through reducing the skin irritation effect.

Bioelectronic nose: Current status and perspectives.

A characteristic feature of human and animal organs of smell is the ability to identify hundreds of thousands of odours. It is accompanied by particular smell sensations, which are a basic source of information about odour mixture. The main structural elements of biological smell systems are the olfactory receptors. Small differences in a structure of odorous molecules (odorants) can lead to significant change of odour, which is due to the fact that each of the olfactory receptors is coded with different gene and usually corresponds to different type of odour. Discovery and characterisation of the gene family coding the olfactory receptors contributed to the elaboration and development of the electronic smell systems, the so-called bioelectronic noses. The olfactory receptors are employed as a biological element in this type of instruments. An electronic system includes a converter part, which allows measurement and processing of generated signals. A suitable data analysis system is also required to visualise the results. Application potentialities of the bioelectronic noses are focused on the fields of economy and science where highly selective and sensitive analysis of odorous substances is required. The paper presents a review of the latest achievements and critical evaluation of the state of art in the field of bioelectronic noses.