Mitochondria supply sub-lethal signals for cytokine secretion and DNA-damage in H. pylori infection.

The bacterium Helicobacter pylori induces gastric inflammation and predisposes to cancer. H. pylori-infected epithelial cells secrete cytokines and chemokines and undergo DNA-damage. We show that the host cell's mitochondrial apoptosis system contributes to cytokine secretion and DNA-damage in the absence of cell death. H. pylori induced secretion of cytokines/chemokines from epithelial cells, dependent on the mitochondrial apoptosis machinery. A signalling step was identified in the release of mitochondrial Smac/DIABLO, which was required for alternative NF-κB-activation and contributed to chemokine secretion. The bacterial cag-pathogenicity island and bacterial muropeptide triggered mitochondrial host cell signals through the pattern recognition receptor NOD1. H. pylori-induced DNA-damage depended on mitochondrial apoptosis signals and the caspase-activated DNAse. In biopsies from H. pylori-positive patients, we observed a correlation of Smac-levels and inflammation. Non-apoptotic cells in these samples showed evidence of caspase-3-activation, correlating with phosphorylation of the DNA-damage response kinase ATM. Thus, H. pylori activates the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway to a sub-lethal level. During infection, Smac has a cytosolic, pro-inflammatory role in the absence of apoptosis. Further, DNA-damage through sub-lethal mitochondrial signals is likely to contribute to mutagenesis and cancer development.

Spontaneous activity of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway drives chromosomal defects, the appearance of micronuclei and cancer metastasis through the Caspase-Activated DNAse.

Micronuclei are DNA-containing structures separate from the nucleus found in cancer cells. Micronuclei are recognized by the immune sensor axis cGAS/STING, driving cancer metastasis. The mitochondrial apoptosis apparatus can be experimentally triggered to a non-apoptotic level, and this can drive the appearance of micronuclei through the Caspase-activated DNAse (CAD). We tested whether spontaneously appearing micronuclei in cancer cells are linked to sub-lethal apoptotic signals. Inhibition of mitochondrial apoptosis or of CAD reduced the number of micronuclei in tumor cell lines as well as the number of chromosomal misalignments in tumor cells and intestinal organoids. Blockade of mitochondrial apoptosis or deletion of CAD reduced, while experimental activation CAD, STING-dependently, enhanced aggressive growth of tumor cells in vitro. Deletion of CAD from human cancer cells reduced metastasis in xenograft models. CAD-deficient cells displayed a substantially altered gene-expression profile, and a CAD-associated gene expression 'signature' strongly predicted survival in cancer patients. Thus, low-level activity in the mitochondrial apoptosis apparatus operates through CAD-dependent gene-induction and STING-activation and has substantial impact on metastasis in cancer.

Chlamydia trachomatis inhibits apoptosis in infected cells by targeting the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak.

Apoptosis acts in defense against microbial infection, and many infectious agents have developed strategies to inhibit host cell apoptosis. The human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis (Ctr) is an obligate intracellular bacterium that strongly inhibits mitochondrial apoptosis of its human host cell but there is no agreement how the bacteria achieve this. We here provide a molecular analysis of chlamydial apoptosis-inhibition in infected human cells and demonstrate that the block of apoptosis occurs during the activation of the effectors of mitochondrial apoptosis, Bak and Bax. We use small-molecule Bcl-2-family inhibitors and gene targeting to show that previous models cannot explain the anti-apoptotic effect of chlamydial infection. Although the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2-family protein Mcl-1 was strongly upregulated upon infection, Mcl-1-deficient cells and cells where Mcl-1 was pharmacologically inactivated were still protected. Ctr-infection could inhibit both Bax- and Bak-induced apoptosis. Apoptotic Bax-oligomerization and association with the outer mitochondrial membrane was reduced upon chlamydial infection. Infection further inhibited apoptosis induced conformational changes of Bak, as evidenced by changes to protease sensitivity, oligomerization and release from the mitochondrial porin VDAC2. Mitochondria isolated from Ctr-infected cells were protected against the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-family proteins Bim and tBid but this protection was lost upon protease digestion. However, the protective effect of Ctr-infection was reduced in cells lacking the Bax/Bak-regulator VDAC2. We further found that OmpA, a porin of the outer membrane of Ctr, associated upon experimental expression with mitochondria and inhibited apoptosis, phenocopying the effect of the infection. These results identify a novel way of apoptosis inhibition, involving only the most downstream modulator of mitochondrial apoptosis and suggest that Chlamydia has a protein dedicated to the inhibition of apoptosis to secure its survival in human cells.

The deubiquitinase Usp27x as a novel regulator of cFLIPL protein expression and sensitizer to death-receptor-induced apoptosis.

Death receptors are transmembrane proteins that can induce the activation of caspase-8 upon ligand binding, initiating apoptosis. Recent work has highlighted the great molecular complexity of death receptor signalling, in particular through ubiquitination/deubiquitination. We have earlier defined the deubiquitinase Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 27x (Usp27x) as an enzyme capable of stabilizing the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim. Here, we report that enhanced expression of Usp27x in human melanoma cells leads to the loss of cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (cFLIP) and sensitizes to Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNF-R1) or Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3)-induced extrinsic apoptosis through enabling enhanced processing of caspase-8. The loss of cFLIPL upon overexpression of Usp27x was not due to reduced transcription, could be partially counteracted by blocking the ubiquitin proteasome system and was independent of the known cFLIPL destabilizing ubiquitin E3-ligases Itch and DTX1. Instead, Usp27x interacted with the E3-ligase TRIM28 and reduced ubiquitination of TRIM28. Reduction of cFLIPL protein levels by Usp27x-induction depended on TRIM28, which was also required for polyI:C-induced cell death. This work defines Usp27x as a novel regulator of cFLIPL protein expression and a deubiquitinase in fine tuning death receptor signalling pathways to execute apoptosis.

Dynein light chain binding determines complex formation and posttranslational stability of the Bcl-2 family members Bmf and Bim.

The BH3-only class of Bcl-2 family proteins triggers mitochondrial apoptosis. Several mechanisms are used to restrain the pro-apoptotic activity of these proteins. Dynein light chain (DYNLL) 1 and 2 has been proposed to negatively regulate the activity of Bim and Bmf, respectively, and the Bim-DYNLL1 interaction leads to the formation of large protein complexes on mitochondria. Here we found that Bim and Bmf interact with both isoforms of DYNLL (DYNLL1 and DYNLL2). DYNLL1/2 not only induced homo-dimerization of Bim and Bmf but also led to the formation of ternary complexes (Bim-DYNLL-Bmf), both in cell-free and in cellular systems. DYNLL-induced oligomerization stabilized Bmf in cultured cells and inhibited its degradation by the ubiquitin-independent 20S proteasome in a cell-free system. Surprisingly, overexpression of wild-type Bmf but not of a DYNLL-binding-deficient mutant induced degradation of endogenous Bim in different cell lines, but both variants sensitized to apoptosis. Mutant Bmf incapable of interacting with anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins and of inducing apoptosis still caused Bim degradation. These results suggest that Bmf overexpression-induced Bim degradation is not due to the displacement of Bim from anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins but a direct consequence of the modulation of Bim-DYNLL association. A peptide derived from the DYNLL-binding domain of Bim also led to the degradation of Bim as well as of its preferred binding partner Mcl-1. Thus DYNLL regulates the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis by determining the stability of Bmf, Bim, and Mcl-1 proteins.

A non-death function of the mitochondrial apoptosis apparatus in immunity.

Apoptosis is a frequent form of programmed cell death, but the apoptotic signaling pathway can also be engaged at a low level, in the absence of cell death. We here report that such sub-lethal engagement of mitochondrial apoptosis signaling causes the secretion of cytokines from human epithelial cells in a process controlled by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. We further show that sub-lethal signaling of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway is initiated by infections with all tested viral, bacterial, and protozoan pathogens and causes damage to the genomic DNA. Epithelial cells infected with these pathogens secreted cytokines, and this cytokine secretion upon microbial infection was substantially reduced if mitochondrial sub-lethal apoptosis signaling was blocked. In the absence of mitochondrial pro-apoptotic signaling, the ability of epithelial cells to restrict intracellular bacterial growth was impaired. Triggering of the mitochondrial apoptosis apparatus thus not only causes apoptosis but also has an independent role in immune defense.

The established and the predicted roles of dynein light chain in the regulation of mitochondrial apoptosis.

The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is regulated by the interplay between the members of Bcl-2 family. Within this family, BH3-only proteins are the sensors of apoptotic stimuli and can trigger apoptosis either by inhibiting the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2-family proteins or by directly activating the effectors Bax and Bak. An expanding body of research suggests that a number of non-Bcl-2 proteins can also interact with Bcl-2 proteins and contribute to the decision of cell fate. Dynein light chain (LC8, DYNLL or DLC), a hub protein and a dimerizing engine has been proposed to regulate the pro-apoptotic activity of two BH3-only proteins, Bim and Bmf. Our recent work has provided insight into the mechanisms through which DLC1 (DYNLL1) modulates Bim activity. Here we discuss the present day understanding of Bim-DLC interaction and endeavor to evaluate this interaction in the light of information from studies of DLC with other binding partners.

Erratum: Sorafenib promotes graft-versus-leukemia activity in mice and humans through IL-15 production in FLT3-ITD-mutant leukemia cells.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/nm.4484.

Sorafenib promotes graft-versus-leukemia activity in mice and humans through IL-15 production in FLT3-ITD-mutant leukemia cells.

Individuals with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) harboring an internal tandem duplication (ITD) in the gene encoding Fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3) who relapse after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) have a 1-year survival rate below 20%. We observed that sorafenib, a multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, increased IL-15 production by FLT3-ITD+ leukemia cells. This synergized with the allogeneic CD8+ T cell response, leading to long-term survival in six mouse models of FLT3-ITD+ AML. Sorafenib-related IL-15 production caused an increase in CD8+CD107a+IFN-γ+ T cells with features of longevity (high levels of Bcl-2 and reduced PD-1 levels), which eradicated leukemia in secondary recipients. Mechanistically, sorafenib reduced expression of the transcription factor ATF4, thereby blocking negative regulation of interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) activation, which enhanced IL-15 transcription. Both IRF7 knockdown and ATF4 overexpression in leukemia cells antagonized sorafenib-induced IL-15 production in vitro. Human FLT3-ITD+ AML cells obtained from sorafenib responders following sorafenib therapy showed increased levels of IL-15, phosphorylated IRF7, and a transcriptionally active IRF7 chromatin state. The mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity and glycolytic capacity of CD8+ T cells increased upon sorafenib treatment in sorafenib responders but not in nonresponders. Our findings indicate that the synergism of T cells and sorafenib is mediated via reduced ATF4 expression, causing activation of the IRF7-IL-15 axis in leukemia cells and thereby leading to metabolic reprogramming of leukemia-reactive T cells in humans. Therefore, sorafenib treatment has the potential to contribute to an immune-mediated cure of FLT3-ITD-mutant AML relapse, an otherwise fatal complication after allo-HCT.

Dynein light chain 1 induces assembly of large Bim complexes on mitochondria that stabilize Mcl-1 and regulate apoptosis.

The Bcl-2 family protein Bim triggers mitochondrial apoptosis. Bim is expressed in nonapoptotic cells at the mitochondrial outer membrane, where it is activated by largely unknown mechanisms. We found that Bim is regulated by formation of large protein complexes containing dynein light chain 1 (DLC1). Bim rapidly inserted into cardiolipin-containing membranes in vitro and recruited DLC1 to the membrane. Bim binding to DLC1 induced the formation of large Bim complexes on lipid vesicles, on isolated mitochondria, and in intact cells. Native gel electrophoresis and gel filtration showed Bim-containing mitochondrial complexes of several hundred kilodaltons in all cells tested. Bim unable to form complexes was consistently more active than complexed Bim, which correlated with its substantially reduced binding to anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins. At endogenous levels, Bim surprisingly bound only anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 but not Bcl-2 or Bcl-XL, recruiting only Mcl-1 into large complexes. Targeting of DLC1 by RNAi in human cell lines induced disassembly of Bim-Mcl-1 complexes and the proteasomal degradation of Mcl-1 and sensitized the cells to the Bcl-2/Bcl-XL inhibitor ABT-737. Regulation of apoptosis at mitochondria thus extends beyond the interaction of monomers of proapoptotic and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members but involves more complex structures of proteins at the mitochondrial outer membrane, and targeting complexes may be a novel therapeutic strategy.

TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-ß (TRIF) forms filamentous structures, whose pro-apoptotic signalling is terminated by autophagy.

The formation of amyloid-like protein structures has recently emerged as a feature in signal transduction, particularly in innate immunity. These structures appear to depend on defined domains for their formation but likely also require dedicated ways to terminate signalling. We, here, define the innate immunity protein/Toll-like receptor adaptor TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-ß (TRIF) as a novel platform of fibril formation and probe signal initiation through TRIF as well as its termination in Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3)-stimulated melanoma cells. A main signalling pathway triggered by TLR3 caused apoptosis, which was controlled by inhibitor of apoptosis proteins and was dependent on RIPK1 and independent of TNF. Using correlative electron/fluorescence microscopy, we visualised fibrillar structures formed through both Toll/interleukin-1 receptor and RIP homotypic interacting motif regions of TRIF. We provide evidence that these fibrillary structures are active signalling platforms whose activity is terminated by autophagy. TRIF-signalling enhanced autophagy, and fibrillary structures were partly contained within autophagosomes. Inhibition of autophagy increased levels of pro-apoptotic TRIF complexes, leading to the accumulation of active caspase-8 and enhanced apoptosis while stimulation of autophagy reduced TRIF-dependent death. We conclude that pro-death signals through TRIF are regulated by autophagy and propose that pro-apoptotic signalling through TRIF/RIPK1/caspase-8 occurs in fibrillary platforms.

Anti-apoptotic Bcl-XL but not Mcl-1 contributes to protection against virus-induced apoptosis.

Infection of mammalian cells with viruses often induces apoptosis. How the recognition of viruses leads to apoptosis of the infected cell and which host cell factors regulate this cell death is incompletely understood. In this study, we focussed on two major anti-apoptotic proteins of the host cell, whose abundance and activity are important for cell survival, the Bcl-2-like proteins Mcl-1 and Bcl-XL. During infection of epithelial cells and fibroblasts with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), Mcl-1 protein levels dropped but the MVA Bcl-2-like protein F1L could replace Mcl-1 functionally; a similar activity was found in vaccinia virus (VACV)-infected cells. During infection with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), Mcl-1-levels were not reduced but a viral Mcl-1-like activity was also generated. Infection of mouse macrophages with any of these viruses, on the other hand, induced apoptosis. Virus-induced macrophage apoptosis was unaltered in the absence of Mcl-1. However, apoptosis was substantially increased in infected Bcl-XL-deficient macrophages or macrophages treated with the Bcl-2/Bcl-XL-inhibitor ABT-737. Genetic loss of Bcl-XL or treatment of macrophages with ABT-737 reduced the generation of infectious VACV. These data show that Mcl-1 is dispensable for the regulation of apoptosis during infection with different large DNA viruses, either because the viruses replace its function (in fibroblasts and epithelial cells) or because the pro-apoptotic activity generated by the infection appears not to be blocked by it (in macrophages). Bcl-XL, on the other hand, can be important to maintain survival of virus-infected cells, and its activity can determine outcome of the infection.

The deubiquitinase Usp27x stabilizes the BH3-only protein Bim and enhances apoptosis.

Bim is a pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member of the BH3-only protein subgroup. Expression levels of Bim determine apoptosis susceptibility in non-malignant and in tumour cells. Bim protein expression is downregulated by proteasomal degradation following ERK-dependent phosphorylation and ubiquitination. Here, we report the identification of a deubiquitinase, Usp27x, that binds Bim upon its ERK-dependent phosphorylation and can upregulate its expression levels. Overexpression of Usp27x reduces ERK-dependent Bim ubiquitination, stabilizes phosphorylated Bim, and induces apoptosis in PMA-stimulated cells, as well as in tumour cells with a constitutively active Raf/ERK pathway. Loss of endogenous Usp27x enhances the Bim-degrading activity of oncogenic Raf. Overexpression of Usp27x induces low levels of apoptosis in melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and substantially enhances apoptosis induced in these cells by the inhibition of ERK signalling. Finally, deletion of Usp27x reduces apoptosis in NSCLC cells treated with an EGFR inhibitor. Thus, Usp27x can trigger via its proteolytic activity the deubiquitination of Bim and enhance its levels, counteracting the anti-apoptotic effects of ERK activity, and therefore acts as a tumour suppressor.

The pro-apoptotic BH3-only protein Bim interacts with components of the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM).

The pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-family protein Bim belongs to the BH3-only proteins known as initiators of apoptosis. Recent data show that Bim is constitutively inserted in the outer mitochondrial membrane via a C-terminal transmembrane anchor from where it can activate the effector of cytochrome c-release, Bax. To identify regulators of Bim-activity, we conducted a search for proteins interacting with Bim at mitochondria. We found an interaction of Bim with Tom70, Tom20 and more weakly with Tom40, all components of the Translocase of the Outer Membrane (TOM). In vitro import assays performed on tryptically digested yeast mitochondria showed reduced Bim insertion into the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) indicating that protein receptors may be involved in the import process. However, RNAi against components of TOM (Tom40, Tom70, Tom22 or Tom20) by siRNA, individually or in combination, did not consistently change the amount of Bim on HeLa mitochondria, either at steady state or upon de novo-induction. In support of this, the individual or combined knock-downs of TOM receptors also failed to alter the susceptibility of HeLa cells to Bim-induced apoptosis. In isolated yeast mitochondria, lack of Tom70 or the TOM-components Tom20 or Tom22 alone did not affect the import of Bim into the outer mitochondrial membrane. In yeast, expression of Bim can sensitize the cells to Bax-dependent killing. This sensitization was unaffected by the absence of Tom70 or by an experimental reduction in Tom40. Although thus the physiological role of the Bim-TOM-interaction remains unclear, TOM complex components do not seem to be essential for Bim insertion into the OMM. Nevertheless, this association should be noted and considered when the regulation of Bim in other cells and situations is investigated.

Mouse Noxa uses only the C-terminal BH3-domain to inactivate Mcl-1.

Noxa is a member of the pro-apoptotic BH3-only group of Bcl-2 proteins that is known to bind specifically to anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 and A1, antagonizing their function. Mcl-1 has been reported to have a short half-life, and Noxa up-regulation accelerates Mcl-1 degradation by the proteasome. Unlike human Noxa, mouse Noxa has two BH3-domains, which both have affinity for Mcl-1. We here investigate two aspects of the molecular function of Noxa, namely the requirements for the two BH3-domains in mouse Noxa and the role of Noxa in Mcl-1-degradation. We found that only the C-terminal BH3-domain of mouse Noxa is active in neutralizing Mcl-1. This was the result of the targeting of Noxa to the outer mitochondrial membrane through its C-terminal alpha-helix, which allowed Mcl-1-neutralization only when the BH3-domain was immediately N-terminal of the membrane anchor. However, the N-terminal BH3-domain enhanced interaction with Mcl-1 and A1. The Noxa-dependent degradation of Mcl-1 was independent of the kinase GSK3 and the deubiquitinase Usp9x in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. These data show that Noxa is targeted to the mitochondrial membrane where it neutralises Mcl-1 via its C-terminal BH3-domain and suggest that Noxa is co-degraded with Noxa, in a way independent of ubiquitin-modifying enzymes described for Mcl-1.

Chemotherapeutic drugs sensitize human renal cell carcinoma cells to ABT-737 by a mechanism involving the Noxa-dependent inactivation of Mcl-1 or A1.

BACKGROUND: Human renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is very resistant to chemotherapy. ABT-737 is a novel inhibitor of anti-apoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family that has shown promise in various preclinical tumour models. RESULTS: We here report a strong over-additive pro-apoptotic effect of ABT-737 and etoposide, vinblastine or paclitaxel but not 5-fluorouracil in cell lines from human RCC. ABT-737 showed very little activity as a single agent but killed RCC cells potently when anti-apoptotic Mcl-1 or, unexpectedly, A1 was targeted by RNAi. This potent augmentation required endogenous Noxa protein since RNAi directed against Noxa but not against Bim or Puma reduced apoptosis induction by the combination of ABT-737 and etoposide or vinblastine. At the level of mitochondria, etoposide-treatment had a similar sensitizing activity and allowed for ABT-737-induced release of cytochrome c. CONCLUSIONS: Chemotherapeutic drugs can overcome protection afforded by Mcl-1 and A1 through endogenous Noxa protein in RCC cells, and the combination of such drugs with ABT-737 may be a promising strategy in RCC. Strikingly, A1 emerged in RCC cell lines as a protein of similar importance as the well-established Mcl-1 in protection against apoptosis in these cells.

Toxoplasma gondii infection confers resistance against BimS-induced apoptosis by preventing the activation and mitochondrial targeting of pro-apoptotic Bax.

In order to accomplish their life style, intracellular pathogens, including the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii, subvert the innate apoptotic response of infected host cells. However, the precise mechanisms of parasite interference with the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway remain unknown. Here, we used the conditional expression of the BH3-only protein Bim(S) to pinpoint the interaction of T. gondii with the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Infection of epithelial cells with T. gondii dose-dependently abrogated Bim(S)-triggered release of cytochrome c from host-cell mitochondria into the cytosol, induction of activity of caspases 3, 7 and 9, and chromatin condensation. Furthermore, inhibition of apoptosis in parasite-infected lymphocytes counteracted death of Toxoplasma-infected host cells. Although total cellular levels and mitochondrial targeting of Bim(S) was not altered by the infection, the activation of pro-apoptotic effector proteins Bax and Bak was strongly impaired. Inhibition of Bax and Bak activation by T. gondii was seen with regard to their conformational changes, the cytosol-to-mitochondria targeting and the oligomerization of Bax but not their cellular protein levels. Blockade of Bax and Bak activation was not mediated by the upregulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2-like proteins following infection. Further, the BH3-mimetic ABT-737 failed to overcome the Toxoplasma-imposed inhibition of Bim(S)-triggered apoptosis. These results indicate that T. gondii targets activation of pro-apoptotic Bax and Bak to inhibit the apoptogenic function of mitochondria and to increase host-cell viability.

Endogenous Noxa Determines the Strong Proapoptotic Synergism of the BH3-Mimetic ABT-737 with Chemotherapeutic Agents in Human Melanoma Cells.

Human melanoma cells are very resistant to treatment with chemotherapeutic agents, and melanoma shows poor response to chemotherapeutic therapy. We describe a strong synergistic proapoptotic effect of the Bcl-2 family inhibitor ABT-737 and the standard antimelanoma drugs, namely, dacarbazine and fotemustine, and the experimental agent, imiquimod. Experiments with human melanoma cells, keratinocytes, and embryonic fibroblasts showed that all three agents activated the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. ABT-737 on its own was ineffective in melanoma cells unless Mcl-1 was experimentally downregulated. However, ABT-737 strongly enhanced the proapoptotic activity of the chemotherapeutic drugs. Whereas cell death induction by all three agents involved the activity of both BH3-only proteins, Bim and Noxa, the combination with ABT-737 overcame the requirement for Bim. However, the synergism between ABT-737 and imiquimod or dacarbazine required endogenous Noxa, as demonstrated by experiments with Noxa-specific RNAi. Surprisingly, although Bim was activated, it was unable to replace Noxa. Studies of mitochondrial cytochrome c release using BH3 peptides confirmed that a main effect of dacarbazine, fotemustine, and imiquimod was to neutralize Mcl-1, thereby sensitizing mitochondria to the inhibition of other Bcl-2 family members through ABT-737. ABT-737 is thus a promising agent for combination therapy for human melanoma. Importantly, the efficacy of this therapy depends on endogenous Noxa, and the ability of chemotherapeutic drugs to activate Noxa may be a valuable predictor of their synergism with Bcl-2-targeting drugs.

The universal stress protein UspC scaffolds the KdpD/KdpE signaling cascade of Escherichia coli under salt stress.

The sensor kinase KdpD and the response regulator KdpE control induction of the kdpFABC operon encoding the high-affinity K(+)-transport system KdpFABC in response to K(+) limitation or salt stress. Under K(+) limiting conditions the Kdp system restores the intracellular K(+) concentration, while in response to salt stress K(+) is accumulated far above the normal content. The kinase activity of KdpD is inhibited at high concentrations of K(+), so it has been puzzling how the sensor can be activated in response to salt stress. Here, we demonstrate that the universal stress protein UspC acts as a scaffolding protein of the KdpD/KdpE signaling cascade by interacting with a Usp domain in KdpD of the UspA subfamily under salt stress. Escherichia coli encodes three single domain proteins of this subfamily, UspA, UspC, and UspD, whose expression is up-regulated under various stress conditions. Among these proteins only UspC stimulated the in vitro reconstructed signaling cascade (KdpD-->KdpE-->DNA) resulting in phosphorylation of KdpE at a K(+) concentration that would otherwise almost prevent phosphorylation. In agreement, in a DeltauspC mutant KdpFABC production was down-regulated significantly when cells were exposed to salt stress, but unchanged under K(+) limitation. Biochemical studies revealed that UspC interacts specifically with the Usp domain in the stimulus perceiving N-terminal domain of KdpD. Furthermore, UspC stabilized the KdpD/KdpE~P/DNA complex and is therefore believed to act as a scaffolding protein. This study describes the stimulation of a bacterial two-component system under distinct stress conditions by a scaffolding protein, and highlights a new role of the universal stress proteins.