Glutaredoxins and iron-sulfur protein biogenesis at the interface of redox biology and iron metabolism.

The physiological roles of the intracellular iron and redox regulatory systems are intimately linked. Iron is an essential trace element for most organisms, yet elevated cellular iron levels are a potent generator and amplifier of reactive oxygen species and redox stress. Proteins binding iron or iron-sulfur (Fe/S) clusters, are particularly sensitive to oxidative damage and require protection from the cellular oxidative stress protection systems. In addition, key components of these systems, most prominently glutathione and monothiol glutaredoxins are involved in the biogenesis of cellular Fe/S proteins. In this review, we address the biochemical role of glutathione and glutaredoxins in cellular Fe/S protein assembly in eukaryotic cells. We also summarize the recent developments in the role of cytosolic glutaredoxins in iron metabolism, in particular the regulation of fungal iron homeostasis. Finally, we discuss recent insights into the interplay of the cellular thiol redox balance and oxygen with that of Fe/S protein biogenesis in eukaryotes.

Biochemical Reconstitution and Spectroscopic Analysis of Iron-Sulfur Proteins.

Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) proteins are involved in numerous key biological functions such as respiration, metabolic processes, protein translation, DNA synthesis, and DNA repair. The simplest types of Fe/S clusters include [2Fe-2S], [3Fe-4S], and [4Fe-4S] forms that sometimes are present in multiple copies. De novo assembly of Fe/S cofactors and their insertion into apoproteins in living cells requires complex proteinaceous machineries that are frequently highly conserved. In eukaryotes such as yeast and mammals, the mitochondrial iron-sulfur cluster assembly machinery and the cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly system consist of more than 30 components that cooperate in the generation of some 50 cellular Fe/S proteins. Both the mechanistic dissection of the intracellular Fe/S protein assembly pathways and the identification and characterization of Fe/S proteins rely on tool boxes of in vitro and in vivo methods. These cell biological, biochemical, and biophysical techniques help to determine the extent, stability, and type of bound Fe/S cluster. They also serve to distinguish bona fide Fe/S proteins from other metal-binding proteins containing similar cofactor coordination motifs. Here, we present a collection of in vitro methods that have proven useful for basic biochemical and biophysical characterization of Fe/S proteins. First, we describe the chemical assembly of [2Fe-2S] or [4Fe-4S] clusters on purified apoproteins. Then, we summarize a reconstitution system reproducing the de novo synthesis of a [2Fe-2S] cluster in mitochondria. Finally, we explain the use of UV-vis, CD, electron paramagnetic resonance, and Mössbauer spectroscopy for the routine characterization of Fe/S proteins.

Mitochondrial Bol1 and Bol3 function as assembly factors for specific iron-sulfur proteins.

Assembly of mitochondrial iron-sulfur (Fe/S) proteins is a key process of cells, and defects cause many rare diseases. In the first phase of this pathway, ten Fe/S cluster (ISC) assembly components synthesize and insert [2Fe-2S] clusters. The second phase is dedicated to the assembly of [4Fe-4S] proteins, yet this part is poorly understood. Here, we characterize the BOLA family proteins Bol1 and Bol3 as specific mitochondrial ISC assembly factors that facilitate [4Fe-4S] cluster insertion into a subset of mitochondrial proteins such as lipoate synthase and succinate dehydrogenase. Bol1-Bol3 perform largely overlapping functions, yet cannot replace the ISC protein Nfu1 that also participates in this phase of Fe/S protein biogenesis. Bol1 and Bol3 form dimeric complexes with both monothiol glutaredoxin Grx5 and Nfu1. Complex formation differentially influences the stability of the Grx5-Bol-shared Fe/S clusters. Our findings provide the biochemical basis for explaining the pathological phenotypes of patients with mutations in BOLA3.

Role of Nfu1 and Bol3 in iron-sulfur cluster transfer to mitochondrial clients.

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are essential for many cellular processes, ranging from aerobic respiration, metabolite biosynthesis, ribosome assembly and DNA repair. Mutations in NFU1 and BOLA3 have been linked to genetic diseases with defects in mitochondrial Fe-S centers. Through genetic studies in yeast, we demonstrate that Nfu1 functions in a late step of [4Fe-4S] cluster biogenesis that is of heightened importance during oxidative metabolism. Proteomic studies revealed Nfu1 physical interacts with components of the ISA [4Fe-4S] assembly complex and client proteins that need [4Fe-4S] clusters to function. Additional studies focused on the mitochondrial BolA proteins, Bol1 and Bol3 (yeast homolog to human BOLA3), revealing that Bol1 functions earlier in Fe-S biogenesis with the monothiol glutaredoxin, Grx5, and Bol3 functions late with Nfu1. Given these observations, we propose that Nfu1, assisted by Bol3, functions to facilitate Fe-S transfer from the biosynthetic apparatus to the client proteins preventing oxidative damage to [4Fe-4S] clusters.

The conserved protein Dre2 uses essential [2Fe-2S] and [4Fe-4S] clusters for its function in cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly.

The cytosolic iron-sulfur (Fe-S) protein assembly (CIA) machinery comprises 11 essential components and matures Fe-S proteins involved in translation and genome maintenance. Maturation is initiated by the electron transfer chain NADPH-diflavin reductase Tah18-Fe-S protein Dre2 that facilitates the de novo assembly of a [4Fe-4S] cluster on the scaffold complex Cfd1-Nbp35. Tah18-Dre2 also play a critical role in the assembly of the diferric tyrosyl radical cofactor of ribonucleotide reductase. Dre2 contains eight conserved cysteine residues as potential co-ordinating ligands for Fe-S clusters but their functional importance and the type of bound clusters is unclear. In the present study, we use a combination of mutagenesis, cell biological and biochemical as well as UV-visible, EPR and Mössbauer spectroscopic approaches to show that the yeast Dre2 cysteine residues Cys(252), Cys(263), Cys(266) and Cys(268) (motif I) bind a [2Fe-2S] cluster, whereas cysteine residues Cys(311), Cys(314), Cys(322) and Cys(325) (motif II) co-ordinate a [4Fe-4S] cluster. All of these residues with the exception of Cys(252) are essential for cell viability, cytosolic Fe-S protein activity and in vivo (55)Fe-S cluster incorporation. The N-terminal methyltransferase-like domain of Dre2 is important for proper Fe-S cluster assembly at motifs I and II, which occurs in an interdependent fashion. Our findings further resolve why recombinant Dre2 from Arabidopsis, Trypanosoma or humans has previously been isolated with a single [2Fe-2S] instead of native [2Fe-2S] plus [4Fe-4S] clusters. In the presence of oxygen, the motif I-bound [2Fe-2S] cluster is labile and the motif II-bound [4Fe-4S] cluster is readily converted into a [2Fe-2S] cluster.