An evaluation of a national oral rehydration solution and zinc scale-up program in Kenya between 2011 and 2016.

BACKGROUND: In Kenya, diarrheal disease is the second leading cause of death among children under five. The Government of Kenya launched a national plan to increase coverage of oral rehydration solution (ORS) and zinc by addressing demand and supply-side barriers. This study evaluates progress of ORS and zinc uptake in Kenya according to the national plan from 2011 to 2016. METHODS: In 2016, we conducted a nationally representative population-based household survey to estimate coverage of ORS and zinc for treatment of diarrhea cases among children under five. We also used ORS and zinc coverage data from the two most recent Kenya Demographic and Health Surveys in 2008/09 and 2014 to estimate annual changes in coverage rates during the program period. Based on these inputs, we used the Lives Saved Tool to estimate the number of diarrhea deaths averted between 2011 and 2016 due to increased use of ORS and zinc. RESULTS: The 2016 survey results showed that ORS coverage was 42% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 38%, 47%) and zinc coverage was 18% (95% CI = 15%, 23%). The estimated coverage for the combined use of ORS and zinc was 15% in 2016 (95% CI = 12%, 19%). Compared to 2011, an additional 3340 (sensitivity bounds = 2 670, 3 920) diarrhea deaths among children under five were averted due to increases in ORS and zinc coverage. CONCLUSIONS: Kenya was successful in catalyzing uptake of combined treatment with ORS and zinc, which rose from 0.8% in 2011 to 15% in 2016. Ongoing efforts are necessary to further build on these gains.

Increasing coverage of pediatric diarrhea treatment in high-burden countries.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhea is the second leading cause of infectious deaths in children under-five globally. Oral rehydration salts (ORS) and zinc could avert an estimated 93% of deaths, but progress to increase coverage of these interventions has been largely stagnant over the past several decades. The Clinton Health Access Initiative (CHAI), along with donors and country governments in India, Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda, implemented programs to scale-up ORS and zinc coverage from 2012 to 2016. The programs sought to demonstrate that increases in pediatric diarrhea treatment rates are possible at scale in high-burden settings through a holistic approach addressing both supply and demand barriers. We describe the overall program model and the activities undertaken in each country. The overall goal of the paper is to share the program results and lessons learned to inform other countries aiming to scale-up ORS and zinc. METHODS: We used a triangulation approach, using population-based household surveys, public facility audits, and private outlet surveys, to evaluate the program model. We used pre- and post-program population-based household survey data to estimate the changes in coverage of ORS and zinc for treatment of diarrhea cases in children under-five in program areas. We also conducted secondary analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) surveys in surrounding regions and compared annual coverage changes in the CHAI-supported program geographies to the surrounding regions. RESULTS: Across CHAI-supported focal geographies, the average ORS coverage across the program areas increased from 35% to 48% and combined ORS and zinc coverage increased from 1% to 24%. ORS coverage increases were statistically significant in the program states in India, from 22% (95% confidence interval CI = 21-23%) to 48% (95% CI = 47-50%) and program states in Nigeria, from 38% (95% CI = 32-40%) to 55% (95% CI = 51-58%). For combined ORS and zinc, coverage increases were statistically significant in all program geographies. Compared to surrounding regions, the estimated annual changes in combined ORS and zinc coverage were greater in program geographies. Using the Lives Saved Tool and based on the coverage changes during the program period, we estimated 76 090 diarrheal deaths were averted in the program geographies. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing ORS and zinc coverage at scale in high-burden countries and states is possible through a comprehensive approach that targets both demand and supply barriers, including pricing, optimal product qualities, provider dispensing practices, stocking rates, and consumer demand.

Nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive factors associated with mid-upper arm circumference as a measure of nutritional status in pregnant Ethiopian women: Implications for programming in the first 1000 days.

Poor nutritional status in pregnancy expressed as low mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) is associated with low birth weight. The study aims were to assess the nutritional status of pregnant Ethiopian women using MUAC and examine association with nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive factors, using baseline data of a prospective longitudinal observational birth cohort study conducted in three rural districts in the Oromia region of Ethiopia. Recruitment into the cohort was rolling over a period of nine months, and the data used for this analysis were collected while the women were between 12-32 weeks of gestation. Detailed household socio-demographics, agricultural production, women's health, morbidity and diets, with weights, heights and MUAC, and anemia prevalence (HemoCue) were collected. The prevalence of low MUAC (< 23 cm) was 41%. Controlling for location and clustering, wealth quintile (OR = 0.88, CI = 0.82 to 0.96, p<0.01) was associated with decreased risk of low MUAC, while trimester (OR = 1.31, CI = 1.16 to 1.48, p<0.001) was associated with increased risk of low MUAC. The only significant factor amenable to nutrition-specific interventions was altitude-adjusted anemia, which was associated with increased risk of low MUAC (OR = 1.28, CI = 1.09 to 1.49, p<0.01). Significant factors amenable to nutrition-sensitive factors and associated with higher odds of low MUAC were household food insecurity (OR = 1.04, CI = 1.02 to 1.06, p<0.001), distance to the clinic in minutes (OR = 1.01, CI = 1.0 to 1.01, p<0.0001) and season of recruitment (lean versus non lean) (OR = 1.30, CI = 1.10 to 1.54, p<0.01). Literacy (OR = 0.85, CI = 0.74 to 0.98, p<0.05) and numeracy (OR = 0.75, CI = 0.62 to 0.91, p<0.01) were also significantly associated with lower odds of low MUAC. Poor nutritional status in pregnancy expressed as percent with low MUAC was high in Ethiopian women. It was associated with several nutrition-specific and -sensitive factors indicating the importance of multisectoral actions in improving outcomes within the first 1000 days.

Effect of enhanced detailing and mass media on community use of oral rehydration salts and zinc during a scale-up program in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh.

BACKGROUND: The Clinton Health Access Initiative implemented a program from 2012-2016 to increase use of oral rehydration salts (ORS) and zinc to treat diarrhea in children under five in three states in India: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The program interventions included detailing and development of a rural supply chain to reach private rural health care providers, training of Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs), technical support to the state governments, and a mass media campaign targeted at caregivers. In Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, some of the program activities, such as detailing and ASHA trainings, were targeted to high-burden focal districts, thus providing an opportunity to study their effect compared to statewide activities that covered all districts, such as the mass media campaign. Our study aimed to estimate the effect of activities on ORS and zinc use. METHODS: Household surveys were conducted at two points during the program and in both focal and non-focal districts. We used a difference-in-difference quasi-experimental approach to estimate the effect of the enhanced activities in focal districts and mass media campaign on the odds of a child being treated with ORS and zinc. FINDINGS: Focal district interventions were associated with a significant increase in the odds of a diarrhea episode receiving ORS in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. Living in focal districts increased the odds of receiving ORS in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh by factors of 3.42 (95% CI = 1.39-8.33) and 2.29 (95% CI = 1.19-4.39), respectively. Focal district interventions were also associated with 15.02 (95% CI = 2.97-75.19) greater odds of receiving both ORS and zinc in Gujarat. In Uttar Pradesh, where the mass media campaign was focused, exposure to the campaign further modified the odds of receiving ORS and combined ORS and zinc by 1.38 (95% CI = 1.04-1.84) and 1.57 (95% CI = 1.01-2.46), respectively. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive public and private provider interventions combined with mass media are effective strategies for increasing ORS and zinc use.