Identification of TP53 germline variants in pediatric patients undergoing tumor testing: strategy and prevalence.

BACKGROUND: TP53 alterations are common in certain pediatric cancers, making identification of putative germline variants through tumor genomic profiling crucial for disease management. METHODS: We analyzed TP53 alterations in 3123 tumors from 2788 pediatric patients sequenced using tumor-only or tumor-normal paired panels. Germline confirmatory testing was performed when indicated. Somatic and germline variants were classified based on published guidelines. RESULTS: In 248 tumors from 222 patients, 284 tier 1/2 TP53 sequence and small copy number variants were detected. Following germline classification, 86.6% of 142 unique variants were pathogenic or likely pathogenic. Confirmatory testing on 118 patients revealed germline TP53 variants in 28 of them (23 pathogenic or likely pathogenic and 5 of uncertain significance), suggesting a minimum Li-Fraumeni syndrome incidence of 0.8% (23/2788) in this cohort, 10.4% (23/222) in patients with TP53 variant-carrying tumors, and 19.5% (23/118) with available normal samples. About 25% (7/28) of patients with germline TP53 variants did not meet Li-Fraumeni syndrome diagnostic or testing criteria, while 20.9% (28/134) with confirmed or inferred somatic origins did. TP53 biallelic inactivation occurred in 75% of germline carrier tumors and was also prevalent in other groups, causing an elevated tumor-observed variant allelic fraction. Somatic evidence, however, including low variant allele fraction correctly identified only 27.8% (25/90) of patients with confirmed somatic TP53 variants. CONCLUSION: The high incidence and variable phenotype of Li-Fraumeni syndrome in this cohort highlights the importance of assessing germline status of TP53 variants identified in all pediatric tumors. Without clear somatic evidence, distinguishing somatic from germline origins is challenging. Classifying germline and somatic variants should follow appropriate guidelines.

Condensate-Promoting ENL Mutation Drives Tumorigenesis In Vivo Through Dynamic Regulation of Histone Modifications and Gene Expression.

Gain-of-function mutations in the histone acetylation "reader" eleven-nineteen-leukemia (ENL), found in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and Wilms tumor, are known to drive condensate formation and gene activation in cellular systems. However, their role in tumorigenesis remains unclear. Using a conditional knock-in mouse model, we show that mutant ENL perturbs normal hematopoiesis, induces aberrant expansion of myeloid progenitors, and triggers rapid onset of aggressive AML. Mutant ENL alters developmental and inflammatory gene programs in part by remodeling histone modifications. Mutant ENL forms condensates in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells at key leukemogenic genes, and disrupting condensate formation via mutagenesis impairs its chromatin and oncogenic function. Moreover, treatment with an acetyl-binding inhibitor of the mutant ENL displaces these condensates from target loci, inhibits mutant ENL-induced chromatin changes, and delays AML initiation and progression in vivo. Our study elucidates the function of ENL mutations in chromatin regulation and tumorigenesis and demonstrates the potential of targeting pathogenic condensates in cancer treatment. Significance: A direct link between ENL mutations, condensate formation, and tumorigenesis is lacking. This study elucidates the function and mechanism of ENL mutations in leukemogenesis, establishing these mutations as bona fide oncogenic drivers. Our results also support the role of condensate dysregulation in cancer and reveal strategies to target pathogenic condensates.

Reinfusion of CD19 CAR T cells for relapse prevention and treatment in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

ABSTRACT: Relapse after CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells remains a substantial challenge. Short CAR T-cell persistence contributes to relapse risk, necessitating novel approaches to prolong durability. CAR T-cell reinfusion (CARTr) represents a potential strategy to reduce the risk of or treat relapsed disease after initial CAR T-cell infusion (CARTi). We conducted a retrospective review of reinfusion of murine (CTL019) or humanized (huCART19) anti-CD19/4-1BB CAR T cells across 3 clinical trials or commercial tisagenlecleucel for relapse prevention (peripheral B-cell recovery [BCR] or marrow hematogones ≤6 months after CARTi), minimal residual disease (MRD) or relapse, or nonresponse to CARTi. The primary endpoint was complete response (CR) at day 28 after CARTr, defined as complete remission with B-cell aplasia. Of 262 primary treatments, 81 were followed by ≥1 reinfusion (investigational CTL019, n = 44; huCART19, n = 26; tisagenlecleucel, n = 11), representing 79 patients. Of 63 reinfusions for relapse prevention, 52% achieved CR (BCR, 15/40 [38%]; hematogones, 18/23 [78%]). Lymphodepletion was associated with response to CARTr for BCR (odds ratio [OR], 33.57; P = .015) but not hematogones (OR, 0.30; P = .291). The cumulative incidence of relapse was 29% at 24 months for CR vs 61% for nonresponse to CARTr (P = .259). For MRD/relapse, CR rate to CARTr was 50% (5/10), but 0/8 for nonresponse to CARTi. Toxicity was generally mild, with the only grade ≥3 cytokine release syndrome (n = 6) or neurotoxicity (n = 1) observed in MRD/relapse treatment. Reinfusion of CTL019/tisagenlecleucel or huCART19 is safe, may reduce relapse risk in a subset of patients, and can reinduce remission in CD19+ relapse.

FLT3 tyrosine kinase inhibition modulates PRC2 and promotes differentiation in acute myeloid leukemia.

Internal tandem duplication mutations in fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3-ITD) are recurrent in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and increase the risk of relapse. Clinical responses to FLT3 inhibitors (FLT3i) include myeloid differentiation of the FLT3-ITD clone in nearly half of patients through an unknown mechanism. We identified enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), a component of polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), as a mediator of this effect using a proteomic-based screen. FLT3i downregulated EZH2 protein expression and PRC2 activity on H3K27me3. FLT3-ITD and loss-of-function mutations in EZH2 are mutually exclusive in human AML. We demonstrated that FLT3i increase myeloid maturation with reduced stem/progenitor cell populations in murine Flt3-ITD AML. Combining EZH1/2 inhibitors with FLT3i increased terminal maturation of leukemic cells and reduced leukemic burden. Our data suggest that reduced EZH2 activity following FLT3 inhibition promotes myeloid differentiation of FLT3-ITD leukemic cells, providing a mechanistic explanation for the clinical observations. These results demonstrate that in addition to its known cell survival and proliferation signaling, FLT3-ITD has a second, previously undefined function to maintain a myeloid stem/progenitor cell state through modulation of PRC2 activity. Our findings support exploring EZH1/2 inhibitors as therapy for FLT3-ITD AML.

Co-Occurrence of Pallister-Killian Syndrome and Burkitt Lymphoma in a Patient with Near-Normal Neurocognitive Development.

Background: Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS) is typically recognized by its features that include developmental delay, seizures, sparse temporal hair, and facial dysmorphisms. PKS is most frequently caused by mosaic supernumerary isochromosome 12p. Case Presentation: Here, we report a patient with PKS who was subsequently diagnosed with Burkitt lymphoma. Following the successful treatment of lymphoma, this patient demonstrated very mild intellectual disability despite the diagnosis of PKS, which is usually associated with severe developmental delay. Discussion: This is the first reported patient with PKS and a hematologic malignancy. Although there is no significant reported association of tetrasomy 12p with cancer, the co-occurrence of two rare findings in this patient suggests a potential relationship. The localization of AICDA, a gene for which overexpression has been implicated in promoting t(8;14) noted in our patient's lymphoma, raises a potential mechanism of pathogenesis. In addition, this case indicates that children with PKS can demonstrate near-normal cognitive development.

Molecular Evolution of Classic Hodgkin Lymphoma Revealed Through Whole-Genome Sequencing of Hodgkin and Reed Sternberg Cells.

The rarity of malignant Hodgkin and Reed Sternberg (HRS) cells in classic Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) limits the ability to study the genomics of cHL. To circumvent this, our group has previously optimized fluorescence-activated cell sorting to purify HRS cells. Using this approach, we now report the whole-genome sequencing landscape of HRS cells and reconstruct the chronology and likely etiology of pathogenic events leading to cHL. We identified alterations in driver genes not previously described in cHL, APOBEC mutational activity, and the presence of complex structural variants including chromothripsis. We found that high ploidy in cHL is often acquired through multiple, independent chromosomal gains events including whole-genome duplication. Evolutionary timing analyses revealed that structural variants enriched for RAG motifs, driver mutations in B2M, BCL7A, GNA13, and PTPN1, and the onset of AID-driven mutagenesis usually preceded large chromosomal gains. This study provides a temporal reconstruction of cHL pathogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE: Previous studies in cHL were limited to coding sequences and therefore not able to comprehensively decipher the tumor complexity. Here, leveraging cHL whole-genome characterization, we identify driver events and reconstruct the tumor evolution, finding that structural variants, driver mutations, and AID mutagenesis precede chromosomal gains. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 171.

Novel ATXN1/ATXN1L::NUTM2A fusions identified in aggressive infant sarcomas with gene expression and methylation patterns similar to CIC-rearranged sarcoma.

CIC-rearranged sarcomas are newly defined undifferentiated soft tissue tumors with CIC-associated fusions, and dismal prognosis. CIC fusions activate PEA3 family genes, ETV1/4/5, leading to tumorigenesis and progression. We report two high-grade CNS sarcomas of unclear histological diagnosis and one disseminated tumor of unknown origin with novel fusions and similar gene-expression/methylation patterns without CIC rearrangement. All three patients were infants with aggressive diseases, and two experienced rapid disease deterioration and death. Whole-transcriptome sequencing identified an ATXN1-NUTM2A fusion in the two CNS tumors and an ATXN1L-NUTM2A fusion in case 3. ETV1/4/5 and WT1 overexpression were observed in all three cases. Methylation analyses predicted CIC-rearranged sarcoma for all cases. Retrospective IHC staining on case 2 demonstrated ETV4 and WT1 overexpression. ATXN1 and ATXN1L interact with CIC forming a transcription repressor complex. We propose that ATXN1/ATXN1L-associated fusions disrupt their interaction with CIC and decrease the transcription repressor complex, leading to downstream PEA3 family gene overexpression. These three cases with novel ATXN1/ATXN1L-associated fusions and features of CIC-rearranged sarcomas may further expand the scope of "CIC-rearranged" sarcomas to include non-CIC rearrangements. Additional cases are needed to demonstrate if ATXN1/ATXN1L-NUTM2A fusions are associated with younger age and more aggressive diseases.

Humanized CD19-Targeted Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T Cells in CAR-Naive and CAR-Exposed Children and Young Adults With Relapsed or Refractory Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

PURPOSE: CD19-targeted chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells demonstrate unprecedented responses in B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL); however, relapse remains a substantial challenge. Short CAR T-cell persistence contributes to this risk; therefore, strategies to improve persistence are needed. METHODS: We conducted a pilot clinical trial of a humanized CD19 CAR T-cell product (huCART19) in children and young adults with relapsed or refractory B-ALL (n = 72) or B-lymphoblastic lymphoma (n = 2), treated in two cohorts: with (retreatment, n = 33) or without (CAR-naive, n = 41) prior CAR exposure. Patients were monitored for toxicity, response, and persistence of huCART19. RESULTS: Seventy-four patients 1-29 years of age received huCART19. Cytokine release syndrome developed in 62 (84%) patients and was grade 4 in five (6.8%). Neurologic toxicities were reported in 29 (39%), three (4%) grade 3 or 4, and fully resolved in all cases. The overall response rate at 1 month after infusion was 98% (100% in B-ALL) in the CAR-naive cohort and 64% in the retreatment cohort. At 6 months, the probability of losing huCART19 persistence was 27% (95% CI, 14 to 41) for CAR-naive and 48% (95% CI, 30 to 64) for retreatment patients, whereas the incidence of B-cell recovery was 15% (95% CI, 6 to 28) and 58% (95% CI, 33 to 77), respectively. Relapse-free survival at 12 and 24 months, respectively, was 84% (95% CI, 72 to 97) and 74% (95% CI, 60 to 90) in CAR-naive and 74% (95% CI, 56 to 97) and 58% (95% CI, 37 to 90) in retreatment cohorts. CONCLUSION: HuCART19 achieved durable remissions with long-term persistence in children and young adults with relapsed or refractory B-ALL, including after failure of prior CAR T-cell therapy.

NTRK Fusions Identified in Pediatric Tumors: The Frequency, Fusion Partners, and Clinical Outcome.

PURPOSE: Neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinase (NTRK) fusions have been described as oncogenic drivers in a variety of tumors. However, little is known about the overall frequency of NTRK fusion in unselected pediatric tumors. Here, we assessed the frequency, fusion partners, and clinical course in pediatric patients with NTRK fusion-positive tumors. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied 1,347 consecutive pediatric tumors from 1,217 patients who underwent tumor genomic profiling using custom-designed DNA and RNA next-generation sequencing panels. NTRK fusions identified were orthogonally confirmed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: NTRK fusions were identified in 29 tumors from 27 patients with a positive yield of 2.22% for all patients and 3.08% for solid tumors. Although NTRK2 fusions were found exclusively in CNS tumors and NTRK1 fusions were highly enriched in papillary thyroid carcinomas, NTRK3 fusions were identified in all tumor categories. The most canonical fusion was ETV6-NTRK3 observed in 10 patients with diverse types of tumors. Several novel NTRK fusions were observed in rare tumor types, including KCTD16-NTRK1 in ganglioglioma and IRF2BP2-NTRK3 in papillary thyroid carcinomas. The detection of an NTRK fusion confirmed the morphologic diagnosis including five cases where the final tumor diagnosis was largely based on the discovery of an NTRK fusion. In one patient, the diagnosis was changed because of the identification of an ETV6-NTRK3 fusion. One patient with infantile fibrosarcoma was treated with larotrectinib and achieved complete pathologic remission. CONCLUSION: NTRK fusions are more frequently seen in pediatric tumors than in adult tumors and involve a broader panel of fusion partners and a wider range of tumors than previously recognized. These results highlight the importance of screening for NTRK fusions as part of the tumor genomic profiling for patients with pediatric cancer.

Characterization of Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells, Microbial Sequences, and Identification of a Candidate Public T-Cell Clone in Kikuchi-Fujimoto Disease.

OBJECTIVES: Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease (KFD) is a self-limited lymphadenitis of unclear etiology. We aimed to further characterize this disease in pediatric patients, including evaluation of the CD123 immunohistochemical (IHC) staining and investigation of potential immunologic and infectious causes. METHODS: Seventeen KFD cases and 12 controls were retrospectively identified, and the histologic and clinical features were evaluated. CD123 IHC staining was quantified by digital image analysis. Next generation sequencing was employed for comparative microbial analysis via RNAseq (5 KFD cases) and to evaluate the immune repertoire (9 KFD cases). RESULTS: In cases of lymphadenitis with necrosis, >0.85% CD123+ cells by IHC was found to be six times more likely in cases with a final diagnosis of KFD (sensitivity 75%, specificity 87.5%). RNAseq based comparative microbial analysis did not detect novel or known pathogen sequences in KFD. A shared complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3) sequence and use of the same T-cell receptor beta variable region family was identified in KFD LNs but not controls, and was not identified in available databases. CONCLUSIONS: Digital quantification of CD123 IHC can distinguish KFD from other necrotizing lymphadenitides. The presence of a unique shared CDR3 sequence suggests that a shared antigen underlies KFD pathogenesis.

Risk-Adapted Preemptive Tocilizumab to Prevent Severe Cytokine Release Syndrome After CTL019 for Pediatric B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Prospective Clinical Trial.

PURPOSE: To prospectively evaluate the effectiveness of risk-adapted preemptive tocilizumab (PT) administration in preventing severe cytokine release syndrome (CRS) after CTL019, a CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. METHODS: Children and young adults with CD19-positive relapsed or refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia were assigned to high- (≥ 40%) or low- (< 40%) tumor burden cohorts (HTBC or LTBC) based on a bone marrow aspirate or biopsy before infusion. HTBC patients received a single dose of tocilizumab (8-12 mg/kg) after development of high, persistent fevers. LTBC patients received standard CRS management. The primary end point was the frequency of grade 4 CRS (Penn scale), with an observed rate of ≤ 5 of 15 patients in the HTBC pre-defined as clinically meaningful. In post hoc analyses, the HTBC was compared with a historical cohort of high-tumor burden patients from the initial phase I CTL019 trial. RESULTS: The primary end point was met. Seventy patients were infused with CTL019, 15 in the HTBC and 55 in the LTBC. All HTBC patients received the PT intervention. The incidence of grade 4 CRS was 27% (95% CI, 8 to 55) in the HTBC and 3.6% (95% CI, 0.4 to 13) in the LTBC. The best overall response rate was 87% in the HTBC and 100% in the LTBC. Initial CTL019 expansion was greater in the HTBC than the LTBC (P < .001), but persistence was not different (P = .73). Event-free and overall survival were worse in the HTBC (P = .004, P < .001, respectively). In the post hoc analysis, grade 4 CRS was observed in 27% versus 50% of patients in the PT and prior phase I cohorts, respectively (P = .18). CONCLUSION: Risk-adapted PT administration resulted in a decrease in the expected incidence of grade 4 CRS, meeting the study end point, without adversely impacting the antitumor efficacy or safety of CTL019.

High Expression of TIM 3 and Galectin 9 on Immunohistochemistry Staining of Tumor Specimen at Diagnosis in Pediatric Patients with Ewing Sarcoma.

Significant progress has been made in the advancement of immune system modulation for cancer treatment in recent years. In particular, immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy have demonstrated remarkable clinical benefit in relapsed/refractory cancers. However, our understanding of the immuno-oncologic landscape in pediatric solid tumors remains limited and is a barrier to continued progress. We examined the immunohistochemical expression of checkpoint receptors PD-1, TIM-3, LAG-3 and their respective ligands in various pediatric cancers at diagnosis and found high expression of TIM-3/Galectin-9 in the infiltrating cells of Ewing sarcoma. Location of checkpoint receptor/ligand expressions is important, as some staining patterns were only seen along tumor borders. Finally, peripheral T cell function varied significantly among different tumors supporting a complex relationship between the tumor microenvironment and the global immune system.

Eosinophilia/Hypereosinophilia in the Setting of Reactive and Idiopathic Causes, Well-Defined Myeloid or Lymphoid Leukemias, or Germline Disorders.

OBJECTIVES: To report the findings of the 2019 Society for Hematopathology/European Association for Haematopathology Workshop within the categories of reactive eosinophilia, hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES), germline disorders with eosinophilia (GDE), and myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms associated with eosinophilia (excluding entities covered by other studies in this series). METHODS: The workshop panel reviewed 109 cases, assigned consensus diagnosis, and created diagnosis-specific sessions. RESULTS: The most frequent diagnosis was reactive eosinophilia (35), followed by acute leukemia (24). Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) received 17 submissions, including chronic eosinophilic leukemia, not otherwise specified (CEL, NOS). Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), MDS/MPN, and therapy-related myeloid neoplasms received 11, while GDE and HES received 12 and 11 submissions, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Hypereosinophilia and HES are defined by specific clinical and laboratory criteria. Eosinophilia is commonly reactive. An acute leukemic onset with eosinophilia may suggest core-binding factor acute myeloid leukemia, blast phase of chronic myeloid leukemia, BCR-ABL1-positive leukemia, or t(5;14) B-lymphoblastic leukemia. Eosinophilia is rare in MDS but common in MDS/MPN. CEL, NOS is a clinically aggressive MPN with eosinophilia as the dominant feature. Bone marrow morphology and cytogenetic and/or molecular clonality may distinguish CEL from HES. Molecular testing helps to better subclassify myeloid neoplasms with eosinophilia and to identify patients for targeted treatments.

Evolution of histomorphologic, cytogenetic, and genetic abnormalities in an untreated patient with MIRAGE syndrome.

Gain of function variants in SAMD9 cause MIRAGE syndrome, a rare Mendelian disorder that results in myeloid dysplastic syndrome (MDS), poor immune response, restricted growth, adrenal insufficiency, ambiguous genitalia, feeding difficulties and most often significantly reduced lifespan. In this study, we describe histomorphologic and genetic changes occurring in serial bone marrow measurements in a patient with MIRAGE syndrome and untreated MDS of 9 years. Histomorphological analysis during childhood showed progressive hypocellularity with erythroid and megakaryocytic dysplasia and cytogenetic testing demonstrated monosomy 7. Serial leukemia gene panel testing performed over a seven year period revealed multiple pre-leukemic clones arising at age 7 years followed by sequential mutational events in ETV6 and RUNX1 driving acute myeloid leukemia (AML) at age 9. Comprehensive genotype-phenotype analysis with 28 previously reported patients found the presence of MDS did not impact overall survival, but in silico variant pathogenicity prediction scores for SAMD9 distinguished patients with poor prognosis. Overall, our analysis shows progression of MDS to AML can be monitored by following mutation evolution in leukemia related genes in patients with MIRAGE syndrome, and specific SAMD9 mutations likely influence disease severity and overall survival.

Increased mTOR activation in idiopathic multicentric Castleman disease.

Idiopathic multicentric Castleman disease (iMCD) is a rare and poorly understood hematologic disorder characterized by lymphadenopathy, systemic inflammation, cytopenias, and life-threatening multiorgan dysfunction. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) inhibition effectively treats approximately one-third of patients. Limited options exist for nonresponders, because the etiology, dysregulated cell types, and signaling pathways are unknown. We previously reported 3 anti-IL-6 nonresponders with increased mTOR activation who responded to mTOR inhibition with sirolimus. We investigated mTOR signaling in tissue and serum proteomes from iMCD patients and controls. mTOR activation was increased in the interfollicular space of iMCD lymph nodes (N = 26) compared with control lymph nodes by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for pS6, p4EBP1, and p70S6K, known effectors and readouts of mTORC1 activation. IHC for pS6 also revealed increased mTOR activation in iMCD compared with Hodgkin lymphoma, systemic lupus erythematosus, and reactive lymph nodes, suggesting that the mTOR activation in iMCD is not just a product of lymphoproliferation/inflammatory lymphadenopathy. Further, the degree of mTOR activation in iMCD was comparable to autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome, a disease driven by mTOR hyperactivation that responds to sirolimus treatment. Gene set enrichment analysis of serum proteomic data from iMCD patients (n = 88) and controls (n = 42) showed significantly enriched mTORC1 signaling. Finally, functional studies revealed increased baseline mTOR pathway activation in peripheral monocytes and T cells from iMCD remission samples compared with healthy controls. IL-6 stimulation augmented mTOR activation in iMCD patients, which was abrogated with JAK1/2 inhibition. These findings support mTOR activation as a novel therapeutic target for iMCD, which is being investigated through a trial of sirolimus (NCT03933904).

Runx1 negatively regulates inflammatory cytokine production by neutrophils in response to Toll-like receptor signaling.

RUNX1 is frequently mutated in myeloid and lymphoid malignancies. It has been shown to negatively regulate Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling through nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in lung epithelial cells. Here we show that RUNX1 regulates TLR1/2 and TLR4 signaling and inflammatory cytokine production by neutrophils. Hematopoietic-specific RUNX1 loss increased the production of proinflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), by bone marrow neutrophils in response to TLR1/2 and TLR4 agonists. Hematopoietic RUNX1 loss also resulted in profound damage to the lung parenchyma following inhalation of the TLR4 ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However, neutrophils with neutrophil-specific RUNX1 loss lacked the inflammatory phenotype caused by pan-hematopoietic RUNX1 loss, indicating that dysregulated TLR4 signaling is not due to loss of RUNX1 in neutrophils per se. Rather, single-cell RNA sequencing indicates the dysregulation originates in a neutrophil precursor. Enhanced inflammatory cytokine production by neutrophils following pan-hematopoietic RUNX1 loss correlated with increased degradation of the inhibitor of NF-κB signaling, and RUNX1-deficient neutrophils displayed broad transcriptional upregulation of many of the core components of the TLR4 signaling pathway. Hence, early, pan-hematopoietic RUNX1 loss de-represses an innate immune signaling transcriptional program that is maintained in terminally differentiated neutrophils, resulting in their hyperinflammatory state. We hypothesize that inflammatory cytokine production by neutrophils may contribute to leukemia associated with inherited RUNX1 mutations.

Oncogene-independent BCR-like signaling adaptation confers drug resistance in Ph-like ALL.

Children and adults with Philadelphia chromosome-like B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph-like B-ALL) experience high relapse rates despite best-available conventional chemotherapy. Ph-like ALL is driven by genetic alterations that activate constitutive cytokine receptor and kinase signaling, and early-phase trials are investigating the potential of the addition of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) to chemotherapy to improve clinical outcomes. However, preclinical studies have shown that JAK or PI3K pathway inhibition is insufficient to eradicate the most common cytokine receptor-like factor 2-rearranged (CRLF2-rearranged) Ph-like ALL subset. We thus sought to define additional essential signaling pathways required in Ph-like leukemogenesis for improved therapeutic targeting. Herein, we describe an adaptive signaling plasticity of CRLF2-rearranged Ph-like ALL following selective TKI pressure, which occurs in the absence of genetic mutations. Interestingly, we observed that Ph-like ALL cells have activated SRC, ERK, and PI3K signaling consistent with activated B cell receptor (BCR) signaling, although they do not express cell surface µ-heavy chain (µHC). Combinatorial targeting of JAK/STAT, PI3K, and "BCR-like" signaling with multiple TKIs and/or dexamethasone prevented this signaling plasticity and induced complete cell death, demonstrating a more optimal and clinically pragmatic therapeutic strategy for CRLF2-rearranged Ph-like ALL.