Disparate Dementia Risk Factors Are Associated with Cognitive Impairment and Rates of Decline in African Americans.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to evaluate the frequency of modifiable dementia risk factors and their association with cognitive impairment and rate of decline in diverse participants engaged in studies of memory and aging. METHODS: Modifiable dementia risk factors and their associations with cognitive impairment and cognitive decline were determined in community-dwelling African American (AA; n = 261) and non-Hispanic White (nHW; n = 193) participants who completed ≥2 visits at the Mayo Clinic Alzheimer Disease Research Center in Jacksonville, Florida. Risk factors and their associations with cognitive impairment (global Clinical Dementia Rating [CDR] ≥ 0.5) and rates of decline (CDR Sum of Boxes) in impaired participants were compared in AA and nHW participants, controlling for demographics, APOE ɛ4 status, and Area Deprivation Index. RESULTS: Hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and diabetes were overrepresented in AA participants, but were not associated with cognitive impairment. Depression was associated with increased odds of cognitive impairment in AA (odds ratio [OR] = 4.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.13-8.67) and nHW participants (OR = 2.79, 95% CI = 1.21-6.44) but uniquely associated with faster decline in AA participants (ß = 1.71, 95% CI = 0.69-2.73, p = 0.001). Fewer AA participants reported antidepressant use (9/49, 18%) than nHW counterparts (57/78, 73%, p < 0.001). Vitamin B12 deficiency was also associated with an increased rate of cognitive decline in AA participants (ß = 2.65, 95% CI = 0.38-4.91, p = 0.023). INTERPRETATION: Modifiable dementia risk factors are common in AA and nHW participants, representing important risk mitigation targets. Depression was associated with dementia in AA and nHW participants, and with accelerated declines in cognitive function in AA participants. Optimizing depression screening and treatment may improve cognitive trajectories and outcomes in AA participants. ANN NEUROL 2024;95:518-529.

Factors Associated With COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance Among Patients Receiving Care at a Federally Qualified Health Center.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the United States is high, with at least 63 million unvaccinated individuals to date. Socioeconomically disadvantaged populations experience lower COVID-19 vaccination rates despite facing a disproportionate COVID-19 burden. OBJECTIVE: To assess the factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among under-resourced, adult patients. METHODS: Participants were patients receiving care at a Federally Qualified Health Center (FQHC) in St. Paul, Minnesota. Data were collected via multiple modes over 2 phases in 2020 (self-administered electronic survey) and 2021 (study team-administered survey by telephone, self-administered written survey) to promote diversity and inclusion for study participation. The primary outcome was COVID-19 vaccine acceptance. Using logistic regression analysis, associations between vaccine acceptance and factors including risk perception, concerns about the COVID-19 vaccine, social determinants of health (SDOH), co-morbidities, pandemic-induced hardships, and stress were assessed by adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: One hundred sixty-eight patients (62.5% female; mean age [SD]: 49.9 [17.4] years; 32% <$20 000 annual household income; 69%

Development and initial cognitive testing of the Digital Equity Screening Tool (DEST): Community participatory approach to assessing digital inequality.

COVID-19 has widened the existing digital divide, especially for people from socially and economically deprived communities. We describe a program evaluation using a community participatory approach to develop self-reported items of patient experience with technology inclusive of digital access and literacy. The feedback received from Community Advisory Boards and Community Engagement Studio members led to the evaluation and refinement of the individual items. The community-based participatory approach highlighted in our paper to develop these items could serve as a model for other screening tool development for enhancing equity and inclusiveness in clinical care and research.

Emergency Preparedness and Risk Communication Among African American Churches: Leveraging a Community-Based Participatory Research Partnership COVID-19 Initiative.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) crisis has disproportionately affected the African American population. To mitigate the disparities, we deployed an emergency preparedness strategy within an existing community-based participatory research (CBPR) partnership among African American churches to disseminate accurate COVID-19 information. We used the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication framework to conduct a needs assessment, distribute emergency preparedness manuals, and deliver COVID-19-related messaging among African American churches via electronic communication platforms. A needs assessment showed that the top 3 church emergency resource needs were financial support, food and utilities, and COVID-19 health information. During an 8-week period (April 3-May 31, 2020), we equipped 120 churches with emergency preparedness manuals and delivered 230 messages via social media (Facebook) and email. For reach, we estimated that 6,539 unique persons viewed content on the Facebook page, and for engagement, we found 1,260 interactions (eg, likes, loves, comments, shares, video views, post clicks). Emails from community communication leaders reached an estimated 12,000 church members. CBPR partnerships can be effectively leveraged to promote emergency preparedness and communicate risk among under-resourced communities during a pandemic.

The Partnership to Improve Diabetes Education Trial: a Cluster Randomized Trial Addressing Health Communication in Diabetes Care.

BACKGROUND: Effective type 2 diabetes care remains a challenge for patients including those receiving primary care in safety net settings. OBJECTIVE: The Partnership to Improve Diabetes Education (PRIDE) trial team and leaders from a regional department of health evaluated approaches to improve care for vulnerable patients. DESIGN: Cluster randomized controlled trial. PATIENTS: Adults with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes seeking care across 10 unblinded, randomly assigned safety net clinics in Middle TN. INTERVENTIONS: A literacy-sensitive, provider-focused, health communication intervention (PRIDE; 5 clinics) vs. standard diabetes education (5 clinics). MAIN MEASURES: Participant-level primary outcome was glycemic control [A1c] at 12 months. Secondary outcomes included select health behaviors and psychosocial aspects of care at 12 and 24 months. Adjusted mixed effects regression models were used to examine the comparative effectiveness of each approach to care. KEY RESULTS: Of 410 patients enrolled, 364 (89%) were included in analyses. Median age was 51 years; Black and Hispanic patients represented 18% and 25%; 96% were uninsured, and 82% had low annual income level (< $20,000); adequate health literacy was seen in 83%, but numeracy deficits were common. At 12 months, significant within-group treatment effects occurred from baseline for both PRIDE and control sites: adjusted A1c (- 0.76 [95% CI, - 1.08 to - 0.44]; P < .001 vs - 0.54 [95% CI, - 0.86 to - 0.21]; P = .001), odds of poor eating (0.53 [95% CI, 0.33-0.83]; P = .01 vs 0.42 [95% CI, 0.26-0.68]; P < .001), treatment satisfaction (3.93 [95% CI, 2.48-6.21]; P < .001 vs 3.04 [95% CI, 1.93-4.77]; P < .001), and self-efficacy (2.97 [95% CI, 1.89-4.67]; P < .001 vs 1.81 [95% CI, 1.1-2.84]; P = .01). No significant difference was observed between study arms in adjusted analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Both interventions improved the participant's A1c and behavioral outcomes. PRIDE was not more effective than standard education. Further research may elucidate the added value of a focused health communication program in this setting.

Factors associated with antidepressant use among low-income racially and ethnically diverse patients with type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Depression is common in patients with type 2 diabetes and associated with poor diabetes-related outcomes. We evaluated the factors associated with antidepressant use in a low-income, racially and ethnically diverse sample of patients with type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study of baseline data from participants in a cluster randomized trial evaluating a health literacy intervention for diabetes care in safety net clinics. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D); antidepressant use was abstracted from medication lists. Multivariable mixed effects logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between antidepressant use and race/ethnicity adjusting for depressive symptoms, age, gender, income, and health literacy. RESULTS: Of 403 participants, 58% were non-Hispanic White, 18% were non-Hispanic Black, and 24% were Hispanic. Median age was 51 years old; 60% were female, 52% of participants had a positive screen for depression, and 18% were on antidepressants. Black and Hispanic participants were significantly less likely to be on an antidepressant compared with white participants, adjusted odds ratios 0.31(95% CI: 0.12 to 0.80) and 0.26 (95% CI: 0.10 to 0.74), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In this vulnerable population with type 2 diabetes, we found a high prevalence of depressive symptoms, and a small proportion of participants were on an antidepressant. Black and Hispanic participants were significantly less likely to be treated with an antidepressant. Our findings suggest depression may be inadequately treated in low-income, uninsured patients with type 2 diabetes, especially racial and ethnic minorities.

The Effects of Racism in Medical Education on Students' Decisions to Practice in Underserved or Minority Communities.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between manifestations of racism in medical school and subsequent changes in graduating medical students' intentions to practice in underserved or minority communities, compared with their attitudes and intentions at matriculation. METHOD: The authors used repeated-measures data from a longitudinal study of 3,756 students at 49 U.S. medical schools that were collected from 2010 to 2014. They conducted generalized linear mixed models to estimate whether manifestations of racism in school curricula/policies, school culture/climate, or student attitudes/behaviors predicted first- to fourth-year changes in students' intentions to practice in underserved communities or primarily with minority populations. Analyses were stratified by students' practice intentions (no/undecided/yes) at matriculation. RESULTS: Students' more negative explicit racial attitudes were associated with decreased intention to practice with underserved or minority populations at graduation. Service learning experiences and a curriculum focused on improving minority health were associated with increased intention to practice in underserved communities. A curriculum focused on minority health/disparities, students' perceived skill at developing relationships with minority patients, the proportion of minority students at the school, and the perception of a tense interracial environment were all associated with increased intention to care for minority patients. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence that racism manifested at multiple levels in medical schools was associated with graduating students' decisions to provide care in high-need communities. Strategies to identify and eliminate structural racism and its manifestations in medical school are needed.

Association of Clinical Specialty With Symptoms of Burnout and Career Choice Regret Among US Resident Physicians.

Importance: Burnout among physicians is common and has been associated with medical errors and lapses in professionalism. It is unknown whether rates for symptoms of burnout among resident physicians vary by clinical specialty and if individual factors measured during medical school relate to the risk of burnout and career choice regret during residency. Objective: To explore factors associated with symptoms of burnout and career choice regret during residency. Design, Setting, and Participants: Prospective cohort study of 4732 US resident physicians. First-year medical students were enrolled between October 2010 and January 2011 and completed the baseline questionnaire. Participants were invited to respond to 2 questionnaires; one during year 4 of medical school (January-March 2014) and the other during the second year of residency (spring of 2016). The last follow-up was on July 31, 2016. Exposures: Clinical specialty, demographic characteristics, educational debt, US Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 score, and reported levels of anxiety, empathy, and social support during medical school. Main Outcomes and Measures: Prevalence during second year of residency of reported symptoms of burnout measured by 2 single-item measures (adapted from the Maslach Burnout Inventory) and an additional item that evaluated career choice regret (defined as whether, if able to revisit career choice, the resident would choose to become a physician again). Results: Among 4696 resident physicians, 3588 (76.4%) completed the questionnaire during the second year of residency (median age, 29 [interquartile range, 28.0-31.0] years in 2016; 1822 [50.9%] were women). Symptoms of burnout were reported by 1615 of 3574 resident physicians (45.2%; 95% CI, 43.6% to 46.8%). Career choice regret was reported by 502 of 3571 resident physicians (14.1%; 95% CI, 12.9% to 15.2%). In a multivariable analysis, training in urology, neurology, emergency medicine, and general surgery were associated with higher relative risks (RRs) of reported symptoms of burnout (range of RRs, 1.24 to 1.48) relative to training in internal medicine. Characteristics associated with higher risk of reported symptoms of burnout included female sex (RR, 1.17 [95% CI, 1.07 to 1.28]; risk difference [RD], 7.2% [95% CI, 3.1% to 11.3%]) and higher reported levels of anxiety during medical school (RR, 1.08 per 1-point increase [95% CI, 1.06 to 1.11]; RD, 1.8% per 1-point increase [95% CI, 1.6% to 2.0%]). A higher reported level of empathy during medical school was associated with a lower risk of reported symptoms of burnout during residency (RR, 0.99 per 1-point increase [95% CI, 0.99 to 0.99]; RD, -0.5% per 1-point increase [95% CI, -0.6% to -0.3%]). Reported symptoms of burnout (RR, 3.20 [95% CI, 2.58 to 3.82]; RD, 15.0% [95% CI, 12.8% to 17.3%]) and clinical specialty (range of RRs, 1.66 to 2.60) were both significantly associated with career choice regret. Conclusions and Relevance: Among US resident physicians, symptoms of burnout and career choice regret were prevalent, but varied substantially by clinical specialty. Further research is needed to better understand these differences and to address these issues.

Health Behaviors and Preventive Healthcare Utilization Among African-American Attendees at a Faith-Based Public Health Conference: Healthy Churches 2020.

Unhealthy eating habits and physical inactivity along with lack of access to quality healthcare contribute to the marked health disparities in chronic diseases among African-Americans. Faith-based public health conferences offer a potential opportunity to improve health literacy and change health behaviors through health promotion within this population, thereby reducing health disparities. This study examined the self-reported health behaviors and preventive healthcare utilization patterns of 77 participants at a predominantly African-American faith-based public health conference, Healthy Churches 2020. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to a sample of attendees to assess their health behaviors (diet and physical activity), preventive healthcare utilization (annual healthcare provider visits), and health-promoting activities at their places of worship. The results indicate that attendees of a faith-based public health conference have adequate preventive healthcare utilization, but suboptimal healthy behaviors. Our findings support the need for ongoing health-promoting activities with an emphasis on diet and physical activity among this population.

Correction to: Medical School Factors Associated with Changes in Implicit and Explicit Bias Against Gay and Lesbian People among 3492 Graduating Medical Students.

Due to a tagging error, two authors were incorrectly listed in indexing systems. Brook W. Cunningham should be B.A. Cunningham and Mark W. Yeazel should be M.W. Yeazel for indexing purposes.

Addressing Pediatric Obesity in Clinic.

There is an epidemic of pediatric obesity in the United States. In most cases, there is an excess in the amount of calories consumed, compared with the amount of calories expended. Numerous body systems are affected by pediatric obesity, with complications varying between boys and girls. Behavioral, genetic, and environmental factors affect the ability of children to avoid becoming obese. Primary care physicians should screen for obesity in children as much as possible. Associated risk factors for obesity should be uncovered. Methods of preventing obesity should be discussed routinely with children and their families. Healthy dietary habits are key, and so are family-oriented interventions, such as eating together at dinnertime. One hour of moderate to vigorous activity daily is recommended for children and adolescents. While pediatric bariatric surgery is an option, there are also numerous nonpharmacological and pharmacological measures available as management for pediatric obesity. Family-based approaches, such as reducing screen time, have been very successful. Non-weight-bearing exercises also help children and adolescents expend calories without causing injury to themselves. Family availability, activity preference, and developmental levels should all be considerations when managing pediatric obesity. Motivational interviewing may also be helpful, especially when customized for each specific patient and family. Clinicians will play an increasing role in terms of identifying, treating, and preventing pediatric obesity; measures that can be done in the clinic should be considered more and more.

Medical School Factors Associated with Changes in Implicit and Explicit Bias Against Gay and Lesbian People among 3492 Graduating Medical Students.

BACKGROUND: Implicit and explicit bias among providers can influence the quality of healthcare. Efforts to address sexual orientation bias in new physicians are hampered by a lack of knowledge of school factors that influence bias among students. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether medical school curriculum, role modeling, diversity climate, and contact with sexual minorities predict bias among graduating students against gay and lesbian people. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of 4732 first-year medical students was recruited from a stratified random sample of 49 US medical schools in the fall of 2010 (81% response; 55% of eligible), of which 94.5% (4473) identified as heterosexual. Seventy-eight percent of baseline respondents (3492) completed a follow-up survey in their final semester (spring 2014). MAIN MEASURES: Medical school predictors included formal curriculum, role modeling, diversity climate, and contact with sexual minorities. Outcomes were year 4 implicit and explicit bias against gay men and lesbian women, adjusted for bias at year 1. KEY RESULTS: In multivariate models, lower explicit bias against gay men and lesbian women was associated with more favorable contact with LGBT faculty, residents, students, and patients, and perceived skill and preparedness for providing care to LGBT patients. Greater explicit bias against lesbian women was associated with discrimination reported by sexual minority students (b = 1.43 [0.16, 2.71]; p = 0.03). Lower implicit sexual orientation bias was associated with more frequent contact with LGBT faculty, residents, students, and patients (b = -0.04 [-0.07, -0.01); p = 0.008). Greater implicit bias was associated with more faculty role modeling of discriminatory behavior (b = 0.34 [0.11, 0.57); p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Medical schools may reduce bias against sexual minority patients by reducing negative role modeling, improving the diversity climate, and improving student preparedness to care for this population.

Validating Health Literacy and Numeracy Measures in Minority Groups.

BACKGROUND: Validation studies of existing health literacy or numeracy tools among racial/ethnic minorities are limited. OBJECTIVE: This study assessed the validity of the Subjective Numeracy Scale (SNS), the Diabetes Numeracy Test (DNT-5), the Brief Health Literacy Screen (BHLS), and the Short Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults (S-TOFHLA) by trait (health literacy or numeracy) and by method (subjective or objective) among non-Hispanic white (NHW), non-Hispanic black (NHB), and Hispanic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of baseline data from the Partnering to Improve Diabetes Education (PRIDE) study, a clustered randomized controlled trial testing the efficacy of a health communication intervention on T2DM outcomes at state Department of Health clinics in middle Tennessee. PRIDE participants with race/ethnicity data available (n = 398) were included in this study. Most patients identified as NHW (59%), 18% identified as NHB, and 23% identified as Hispanic. Pearson correlations among the 4 measures were compared for each racial/ethnic group by trait and method. The convergent validity of each measure with education was also assessed using Pearson correlation analyses. KEY RESULTS: Significant correlations were observed across all 3 subgroups for the numeracy measures (SNS and DNT-5) and the objective measures (DNT-5 and S-TOFHLA). Nonsignificant correlations were observed among Hispanic participants for the health literacy measures (BHLS and S-TOFHLA, correlation coefficient = 0.13) and among NHB and Hispanic participants for the subjective measures (SNS and BHLS, correlations coefficients = 0.15 and 0.09, respectively). A significant positive correlation was noted between education and each measure across all 3 subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: Subjective and health literacy measures demonstrate weaker correlations than objective and numeracy measures, respectively, among minority patients in this study. Our findings highlight the need to further evaluate the appropriateness of these tools for use with minority populations, particularly the BHLS for Hispanic patients.

Perceptions of Provider Communication Among Vulnerable Patients With Diabetes: Influences of Medical Mistrust and Health Literacy.

Patient-provider communication is modifiable and is linked to diabetes outcomes. The association of communication quality with medical mistrust is unknown. We examined these factors within the context of a low-literacy/numeracy-focused intervention to improve diabetes care, using baseline data from diverse patients enrolled in a randomized trial of a health communication intervention. Demographics, measures of health communication (Communication Assessment Tool [CAT], Interpersonal Processes of Care survey [IPC-18]), health literacy (Short Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults), depression, medical mistrust, and glycemic control were ascertained. Adjusted proportional odds models were used to test the association of mistrust with patient-reported communication quality. The interaction effect of health literacy on mistrust and communication quality was also assessed. A total of 410 patients were analyzed. High levels of mistrust were observed. In multivariable modeling, patients with higher mistrust had lower adjusted odds of reporting a higher CAT score (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.67, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.52, 0.86], p = .003) and higher scores on the Communication (AOR = 0.69, 95% CI [0.55, 0.88], p = .008), Decided Together (AOR = 0.74, 95% CI [0.59, 0.93], p = .02), and Interpersonal Style (AOR = 0.69, 95% CI [0.53, 0.90], p = .015) subscales of the IPC-18. We observed evidence of an interaction effect of health literacy for the association between mistrust and the Decided Together subscale of the IPC-18 such that patients with higher mistrust and lower literacy perceived worse communication relative to mistrustful patients with higher literacy. In conclusion, medical mistrust was associated with poorer communication with providers in this public health setting. Patients' health literacy level may vary the effect of mistrust on interactional aspects of communication. Providers should consider the impact of mistrust on communication with vulnerable diabetes populations and focus efforts on mitigating its influence.

The PRIDE (Partnership to Improve Diabetes Education) Toolkit: Development and Evaluation of Novel Literacy and Culturally Sensitive Diabetes Education Materials.

PURPOSE: Patients with low literacy, low numeracy, and/or linguistic needs can experience challenges understanding diabetes information and applying concepts to their self-management. The authors designed a toolkit of education materials that are sensitive to patients' literacy and numeracy levels, language preferences, and cultural norms and that encourage shared goal setting to improve diabetes self-management and health outcomes. The Partnership to Improve Diabetes Education (PRIDE) toolkit was developed to facilitate diabetes self-management education and support. METHODS: The PRIDE toolkit includes a comprehensive set of 30 interactive education modules in English and Spanish to support diabetes self-management activities. The toolkit builds upon the authors' previously validated Diabetes Literacy and Numeracy Education Toolkit (DLNET) by adding a focus on shared goal setting, addressing the needs of Spanish-speaking patients, and including a broader range of diabetes management topics. Each PRIDE module was evaluated using the Suitability Assessment of Materials (SAM) instrument to determine the material's cultural appropriateness and its sensitivity to the needs of patients with low literacy and low numeracy. Reading grade level was also assessed using the Automated Readability Index (ARI), Coleman-Liau, Flesch-Kincaid, Fry, and SMOG formulas. CONCLUSIONS: The average reading grade level of the materials was 5.3 (SD 1.0), with a mean SAM of 91.2 (SD 5.4). All of the 30 modules received a "superior" score (SAM >70%) when evaluated by 2 independent raters. The PRIDE toolkit modules can be used by all members of a multidisciplinary team to assist patients with low literacy and low numeracy in managing their diabetes.

Health communication, self-care, and treatment satisfaction among low-income diabetes patients in a public health setting.

OBJECTIVE: Diabetes patients with limited resources often experience suboptimal care. Less is known about the role of effective health communication (HC) in caring for low income diabetes patients. METHODS: Ten health department clinics in TN participated in a trial evaluating a literacy-sensitive communication intervention. We assessed the quality of baseline HC and measured associations with diabetes outcomes. Assessments included: demographics, measures of HC, health literacy, self-care behaviors, self-efficacy, medication non-adherence, treatment satisfaction, and A1C. Unadjusted and adjusted multivariable regression models were used to test associations. RESULTS: Participants (N=411) were 49.7±9.5 years, 61% female, uninsured (96%), with A1C 9.6±2.1. In unadjusted analyses, better communication, was associated with lower medication non-adherence (OR 0.40-0.68, all p<0.05), higher treatment satisfaction (OR 1.76-1.96, all p<0.01), portion size reduction (OR 1.43, p<0.05), diabetes self-efficacy (OR 1.41, p<0.05), and lower A1C (ß=-0.06, p<0.01). In adjusted analyses, communication quality remained associated with lower medication non-adherence (AOR 0.39-0.68, all p<0.05), and higher treatment satisfaction (AOR 1.90-2.21, all p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Better communication between low-income patients and providers was independently associated with lower medication non-adherence and higher treatment satisfaction. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Communication quality may be an important modifiable approach to improving diabetes care for vulnerable populations.