Hurricanes pose a substantial risk to New England forest carbon stocks.

Nature-based climate solutions (NCS) are championed as a primary tool to mitigate climate change, especially in forested regions capable of storing and sequestering vast amounts of carbon. New England is one of the most heavily forested regions in the United States (>75% forested by land area), and forest carbon is a significant component of climate mitigation policies. Large infrequent disturbances, such as hurricanes, are a major source of uncertainty and risk for policies relying on forest carbon for climate mitigation, especially as climate change is projected to alter the intensity and extent of hurricanes. To date, most research into disturbance impacts on forest carbon stocks has focused on fire. Here, we show that a single hurricane in the region can down between 121 and 250 MMTCO2e or 4.6%-9.4% of the total aboveground forest carbon, much greater than the carbon sequestered annually by New England's forests (16 MMTCO2e year-1). However, emissions from hurricanes are not instantaneous; it takes approximately 19 years for downed carbon to become a net emission and 100 years for 90% of the downed carbon to be emitted. Reconstructing hurricanes with the HURRECON and EXPOS models across a range of historical and projected wind speeds, we find that an 8% and 16% increase in hurricane wind speeds leads to a 10.7- and 24.8-fold increase in the extent of high-severity damaged areas (widespread tree mortality). Increased wind speed also leads to unprecedented geographical shifts in damage, both inland and northward, into heavily forested regions traditionally less affected by hurricanes. Given that a single hurricane can emit the equivalent of 10+ years of carbon sequestered by forests in New England, the status of these forests as a durable carbon sink is uncertain. Understanding the risks to forest carbon stocks from disturbances is necessary for decision-makers relying on forests as a NCS.

United in earnest: First pilot sites for increased surgical capacity for rheumatic heart disease announced by Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatic heart disease affects more than 33,000,000 individuals, mostly from low- and middle-income countries. The Cape Town Declaration on Access to Cardiac Surgery in the Developing World was published in August 2018, signaling the commitment of the global cardiac surgery and cardiology communities to improving care for rheumatic heart disease patients. METHODS: As the Cape Town Declaration formed the basis for which the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance was formed, the purpose of this article is to describe the history of the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance, its formation, ongoing activities, and future directions, including the announcement of selected pilot sites. RESULTS: The Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance is an international alliance consisting of representatives from major cardiothoracic surgical societies and the World Heart Federation. Activities have included meetings at annual conferences, exhibit hall participation for advertisement and recruitment, and publication of selection criteria for cardiac surgery centers to apply for Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance support. Criteria focused on local operating capacity, local championing, governmental and facility support, appropriate identification of a specific gap in care and desire to engage in future research. Eleven applications were received for which three finalist sites were selected and site visits conducted. The two selected sites were Hospital Central Maputo (Mozambique) and King Faisal Hospital Kigali (Rwanda). CONCLUSIONS: Substantial progress has been made since the passing of the Cape Town Declaration and the formation of the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance, but ongoing efforts with collaboration of all committed parties-cardiac surgery, cardiology, industry, and government-will be necessary to improve access to life-saving cardiac surgery for rheumatic heart disease patients.

United in Earnest: First Pilot Sites for Increased Surgical Capacity for Rheumatic Heart Disease Announced by Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) affects more than 33,000,000 individuals, mostly from low- and middle-income countries. The Cape Town Declaration On Access to Cardiac Surgery in the Developing World was published in August 2018, signaling the commitment of the global cardiac surgery and cardiology communities to improving care for RHD patients. METHODS: As the Cape Town Declaration formed the basis for which the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance (CSIA) was formed, the purpose of this article is to describe the history of the CSIA, its formation, ongoing activities, and future directions, including the announcement of selected pilot sites. RESULTS: The CSIA is an international alliance consisting of representatives from major cardiothoracic surgical societies and the World Heart Federation. Activities have included meetings at annual conferences, exhibit hall participation for advertisement and recruitment, and publication of selection criteria for cardiac surgery centers to apply for CSIA support. Criteria focused on local operating capacity, local championing, governmental and facility support, appropriate identification of a specific gap in care, and desire to engage in future research. Eleven applications were received for which three finalist sites were selected and site visits conducted. The two selected sites were Hospital Central Maputo (Mozambique) and King Faisal Hospital Kigali (Rwanda). CONCLUSIONS: Substantial progress has been made since the passing of the Cape Town Declaration and the formation of the CSIA, but ongoing efforts with collaboration of all committed parties-cardiac surgery, cardiology, industry, and government-will be necessary to improve access to life-saving cardiac surgery for RHD patients.

United in earnest: First pilot sites for increased surgical capacity for rheumatic heart disease announced by Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) affects more than 33,000,000 individuals, mostly from low- and middle-income countries. The Cape Town Declaration On Access to Cardiac Surgery in the Developing World was published in August 2018, signaling the commitment of the global cardiac surgery and cardiology communities to improving care for RHD patients. METHODS: As the Cape Town Declaration formed the basis for which the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance (CSIA) was formed, the purpose of this article is to describe the history of the CSIA, its formation, ongoing activities, and future directions, including the announcement of selected pilot sites. RESULTS: The CSIA is an international alliance consisting of representatives from major cardiothoracic surgical societies and the World Heart Federation. Activities have included meetings at annual conferences, exhibit hall participation for advertisement and recruitment, and publication of selection criteria for cardiac surgery centers to apply for CSIA support. Criteria focused on local operating capacity, local championing, governmental and facility support, appropriate identification of a specific gap in care, and desire to engage in future research. Eleven applications were received for which three finalist sites were selected and site visits conducted. The two selected sites were Hospital Central Maputo (Mozambique) and King Faisal Hospital Kigali (Rwanda). CONCLUSIONS: Substantial progress has been made since the passing of the Cape Town Declaration and the formation of the CSIA, but ongoing efforts with collaboration of all committed parties-cardiac surgery, cardiology, industry, and government-will be necessary to improve access to life-saving cardiac surgery for RHD patients.

United in earnest: first pilot sites for increased surgical capacity for rheumatic heart disease announced by cardiac surgery intersociety alliance.

OBJECTIVES: Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) affects >33 000 000 individuals, mostly from low- and middle-income countries. The Cape Town Declaration on Access to Cardiac Surgery in the Developing World was published in August 2018, signalling the commitment of the global cardiac surgery and cardiology communities to improving care for patients with RHD. METHODS: As the Cape Town Declaration formed the basis for which the Cardiac Surgery Intersociety Alliance (CSIA) was formed, the purpose of this article is to describe the history of the CSIA, its formation, ongoing activities and future directions, including the announcement of selected pilot sites. RESULTS: The CSIA is an international alliance consisting of representatives from major cardiothoracic surgical societies and the World Heart Federation. Activities have included meetings at annual conferences, exhibit hall participation for advertisement and recruitment and publication of selection criteria for cardiac surgery centres to apply for CSIA support. Criteria focused on local operating capacity, local championing, governmental and facility support, appropriate identification of a specific gap in care and desire to engage in future research. Eleven applications were received for which 3 finalist sites were selected and site visits conducted. The 2 selected sites were Hospital Central Maputo (Mozambique) and King Faisal Hospital Kigali (Rwanda). CONCLUSIONS: Substantial progress has been made since the passing of the Cape Town Declaration and the formation of the CSIA, but ongoing efforts with collaboration of all committed parties-cardiac surgery, cardiology, industry and government-will be necessary to improve access to life-saving cardiac surgery for patients with RHD.

Decision support tool: Mottled duck habitat management and conservation in the Western Gulf Coast.

The Western Gulf Coast provides important habitat for migratory and resident waterfowl. The mottled duck (Anas fulvigula) relies on this region for all of its life-cycle events. Its relatively small population, limited worldwide range, and generally declining population trajectory has earned it a "Red" status on the Audubon WatchList and is a species of concern among state and federal agencies. The Western Gulf Coast (WGC) mottled duck population decline is believed to be primarily caused by the historical conversion and degradation of coastal wetlands and native prairie, and recent declines in cultivated rice. There is general agreement among experts that negative impacts to nesting and brood-rearing habitat are the most important threats to the WGC mottled duck population and increasing recruitment is essential to the growth and sustainability of the population. Our goal was to use available knowledge of mottled duck nesting and brood-rearing requirements to develop a model to aid managers in targeting areas for conservation and management. We developed four spatially explicit models that: 1) identify and prioritize existing mottled duck nesting habitat for conservation (e.g., protection or maintenance); 2) identify and prioritize existing mottled duck brood-rearing habitat for conservation; 3) identify and prioritize areas for grassland establishment; and 4) identify and prioritize wetland basins for freshwater enhancement. Spatial models revealed that only 6 km2 and 9 km2 of nesting and brood-rearing habitat, respectively, were identified as highest priority (top 10%) for conservation in the WGC. Brood habitat was identified as potentially limiting recruitment in the Texas Mid Coast and the Laguna Madre subregions of our study area, whereas grassland habitat was potentially limiting recruitment in Chenier Plain and Mississippi River Coastal Wetlands subregions. Spatial models also revealed that there is a high density of areas of high priority for grassland establishment inland in Texas and Louisiana. Likewise, there is a high density of wetland basins of high priority for freshwater enhancement throughout coastal Louisiana and the upper Texas coast. We used two separate measures to assess the performance of our Mottled Duck Decision Support Tool (hereafter MODU-DST) and found that it adequately identified patch suitability, as defined by our model, with ≥79% accuracy. Using data from the Cooperative Breeding Mottled Duck Survey, we also found that breeding mottled ducks were using landscapes with optimal spatial arrangement of nesting and brood-rearing habitat, which is reflected by higher mean priority rankings of nesting and brood-rearing habitat in the landscape.

Neuralgic Amyotrophy Attributed Incorrectly to Block-Related Injury: Understanding Errors in Clinical Reasoning.

OBJECTIVE: We report a case of misdiagnosed neuralgic amyotrophy (brachial plexus neuritis, Parsonage-Turner syndrome). Our primary objective is to review the scientific basis for errors in clinical reasoning. CASE REPORT: We herein report a patient in whom signs and symptoms compatible with neuralgic amyotrophy presented after shoulder surgery. The patient's brachial plexopathy was attributed incorrectly as a complication of interscalene brachial plexus block. The true diagnosis was made only after the patient developed neuralgic amyotrophy in the contralateral upper extremity after a subsequent shoulder surgery on that side, this time without a brachial plexus block. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive bias may lead to errors in clinical reasoning and consequent misdiagnosis. Temporal proximity may falsely implicate regional anesthesia as the causative agent.

Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of an ¹8F-labeled oleic acid analog for PET imaging of fatty acid uptake and metabolism.

INTRODUCTION: Imaging fatty acid uptake and utilization has broad impact in investigating myocardial diseases, hepatic functions, tumor progression, and the metabolic state of adipose tissue. The SPECT tracer (123)I-15-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(R,S)-methylpentadecanoic acid (BMIPP) is a clinically used nuclear medicine tracer to image myocardial uptake of fatty acid. Although ((18)F-5) has been in clinical use for PET imaging of adipose tissue as well as the myocardium, here we developed a click oleate analog to compare to FTO, with the goal of improved stability to defluorination and suitability for imaging myocardial uptake and oxidation of fatty acids. METHODS: A rapid and convenient synthetic approach for a precursor to a (18)F-labeled oleate analog using click chemistry was developed and evaluated for PET imaging in fasted mice. RESULTS: The overall yield for the preparation of the labeling precursor of the clicked oleate analog was 12%. This precursor was efficiently radiolabeled with F-18 in 17% non-decay-corrected radiochemical yield. PET/CT imaging and biodistribution results show that this fatty acid analog had reasonable heart uptake (0.94±0.28 %ID/g at 0.5 h p.i.) and heart-to-muscle ratio (2.05±0.39 at 0.5h p.i.) and is a potential lead for developing new PET tracers to image fatty acid uptake and utilization using click chemistry methodologies. The synthetic route to FTO was optimized to three steps from known starting materials. CONCLUSION: While the uptake of the clicked oleic acid analog was sufficient for visualizing the myocardium in mice, the preliminary metabolism data suggest that only a fraction of the uptake was due to fatty acid beta-oxidation. Studies are under way to explore the uptake/oxidation mechanism and kinetics.

Unexpected-Disturbance Program for Rehabilitation of High-Performance Athletes.

CONTEXT: The Unexpected-Disturbance Program (UDP) promotes exercises in response to so-called involuntary short- to midlatency disturbances. OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the effectiveness of the UDP in the last 6 wk of rehabilitation. DESIGN: Pre-post study with 2-tailed paired t tests for limited a priori comparisons to examine differences. SETTING: National Sports Institute of Malaysia. PARTICIPANTS: 24 Malaysian national athletes. INTERVENTIONS: 7 sessions/wk of 90 min with 3 sessions allocated for 5 or 6 UDP exercises. MAIN OUTCOMES: Significant improvements for men and women were noted. Tests included 20-m sprint, 1-repetition-maximum single-leg press, standing long jump, single-leg sway, and a psychological questionnaire. RESULTS: For men and women, respectively, average strength improvements of 22% (d = 0.96) and 29% (d = 1.05), sprint time of 3% (d = 1.06) and 4% (d = 0.58), and distance jumped of 4% (d = 0.59) and 6% (d = 0.47) were noted. In addition, athletes reported improved perceived confidence in their abilities. All athletes improved in each functional test except for long jump in 2 of the athletes. Mediolateral sway decreased in 18 of the 22 athletes for the injured limb. CONCLUSION: The prevention training with UDP resulted in improved conditioning and seems to decrease mediolateral sway.

Evaluation of a triple-helical peptide with quenched FluorSophores for optical imaging of MMP-2 and MMP-9 proteolytic activity.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9, the gelatinases, have consistently been associated with tumor progression. The development of gelatinase-specific probes will be critical for identifying in vivo gelatinoic activity to understand the molecular role of the gelatinases in tumor development. Recently, a self-assembling homotrimeric triple-helical peptide (THP), incorporating a sequence from type V collagen, with high substrate specificity to the gelatinases has been developed. To determine whether this THP would be suitable for imaging protease activity, 5-carboxyfluorescein (5FAM) was conjugated, resulting in 5FAM3-THP and 5FAM6-THP, which were quenched up to 50%. 5FAM6-THP hydrolysis by MMP-2 and MMP-9 displayed kcat/KM values of 1.5 × 104 and 5.4 × 103 M-1 s-1, respectively. Additionally 5FAM6-THP visualized gelatinase activity in gelatinase positive HT-1080 cells, but not in gelatinase negative MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, the fluorescence in the HT-1080 cells was greatly attenuated by the addition of a MMP-2 and MMP-9 inhibitor, SB-3CT, indicating that the observed fluorescence release was mediated by gelatinase proteolysis and not non-specific proteolysis of the THPs. These results demonstrate that THPs fully substituted with fluorophores maintain their substrate specificity to the gelatinases in human cancer cells and may be useful in in vivo molecular imaging of gelatinase activity.

Does performing drop jumps with additional eccentric loading improve jump performance?

Previous investigators have speculated that applying additional external load throughout the eccentric phase of the jumping movement could amplify the stretch-shortening cycle mechanism and modulate jumping performance and jump exercise intensity. The aims of this study, therefore, were to determine the effect of increased eccentric phase loading, as delivered using an elastic device, on drop jumps (DJs) performed from different drop heights. Of specific interest were changes in (a) the kinetics; eccentric and concentric impulse, rate of force development (RFD), concentric velocity and (b) the electromyographic (EMG) activity of leg muscles. In a randomized repeated-measure study, 15 highly resistance trained male subjects performed DJs from 3 heights (20, 35, and 50 cm) under 3 different conditions: body weight only (free DJ) and with elastic bands providing downward force equivalent to 20% (+20% DJ) and 30% (+30% DJ) of body mass. All DJs were recorded using video and force plate data that were synchronized with EMG data. Results demonstrated that using additional tensile load during the airborne and eccentric phases of the DJ could enhance eccentric impulse (p = 0.042) and RFD (p < 0.001) and resulted in small to moderate effect size (ES) increases in quadriceps intergrated EMG across the eccentric phase (0.23 > ES > 0.51). The observed greater eccentric loading, however, did not immediately alter concentric kinetics and jump height nor did it alter muscle activation levels during this phase. The findings indicated that, in addition to the conventional technique of increasing drop height, using a tensile load during the airborne and eccentric phases of the DJ could further improve eccentric loading of DJs. As it has been suggested that eccentric impulse and RFD are indicators of DJ exercise intensity, these findings suggest that the loaded DJs, using additional elastic load, may be an effective technique for improving DJ exercise intensity without acute effects on the jumping performance and neuromuscular activation level in highly trained athletes.

The effect of unsteady flow due to acceleration on hydrodynamic forces acting on the hand in swimming.

This study describes the effect of hand acceleration on hydrodynamic forces acting on the human hand in angular and general motions with variable hand accelerations. Even if accelerations of a swimmer's hand are believed to have an important role in generating hydrodynamic forces on the hand, the effect of accelerations in angular and general motions on hydrodynamic forces on the swimmers hand has not been previously quantified. Understanding how hand acceleration influences force generation can provide useful information to enhance swimming performance. A hand-forearm model attached to a tri-axial load cell was constructed to measure hydrodynamic forces acting only on the hand when the model was rotated and accelerated in a swimming flume. The effect of acceleration on hydrodynamic forces on the hand was described by comparing the difference between accelerating and non-accelerating hands in different flow conditions. Hydrodynamic forces on the accelerating hand varied between 1.9 and 10 times greater than for the non-accelerating hand in angular motion and varied between 1.7 and 25 times greater than for the non-accelerating hand in general motion. These large increases occurred not only during positive acceleration phases but also during negative acceleration phases, and may be due to the added mass effect and a vortex formed on the dorsal side of the hand. This study provides new evidence for enhanced stroke techniques in swimming to generate increased propulsion by changing hand velocity during a stroke.

Imputing forest carbon stock estimates from inventory plots to a nationally continuous coverage.

The U.S. has been providing national-scale estimates of forest carbon (C) stocks and stock change to meet United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reporting requirements for years. Although these currently are provided as national estimates by pool and year to meet greenhouse gas monitoring requirements, there is growing need to disaggregate these estimates to finer scales to enable strategic forest management and monitoring activities focused on various ecosystem services such as C storage enhancement. Through application of a nearest-neighbor imputation approach, spatially extant estimates of forest C density were developed for the conterminous U.S. using the U.S.'s annual forest inventory. Results suggest that an existing forest inventory plot imputation approach can be readily modified to provide raster maps of C density across a range of pools (e.g., live tree to soil organic carbon) and spatial scales (e.g., sub-county to biome). Comparisons among imputed maps indicate strong regional differences across C pools. The C density of pools closely related to detrital input (e.g., dead wood) is often highest in forests suffering from recent mortality events such as those in the northern Rocky Mountains (e.g., beetle infestations). In contrast, live tree carbon density is often highest on the highest quality forest sites such as those found in the Pacific Northwest. Validation results suggest strong agreement between the estimates produced from the forest inventory plots and those from the imputed maps, particularly when the C pool is closely associated with the imputation model (e.g., aboveground live biomass and live tree basal area), with weaker agreement for detrital pools (e.g., standing dead trees). Forest inventory imputed plot maps provide an efficient and flexible approach to monitoring diverse C pools at national (e.g., UNFCCC) and regional scales (e.g., Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation projects) while allowing timely incorporation of empirical data (e.g., annual forest inventory).

Analysis of energy flow during playground surface impacts.

The amount of energy dissipated away from or returned to a child falling onto a surface will influence fracture risk but is not considered in current standards for playground impact-attenuating surfaces. A two-mass rheological computer simulation was used to model energy flow within the wrist and surface during hand impact with playground surfaces, and the potential of this approach to provide insights into such impacts and predict injury risk examined. Acceleration data collected on-site from typical playground surfaces and previously obtained data from children performing an exercise involving freefalling with a fully extended arm provided input. The model identified differences in energy flow properties between playground surfaces and two potentially harmful surface characteristics: more energy was absorbed by (work done on) the wrist during both impact and rebound on rubber surfaces than on bark, and rubber surfaces started to rebound (return energy to the wrist) while the upper limb was still moving downward. Energy flow analysis thus provides information on playground surface characteristics and the impact process, and has the potential to identify fracture risks, inform the development of safer impact-attenuating surfaces, and contribute to development of new energy-based arm fracture injury criteria and tests for use in conjunction with current methods.

Carbamate protection of AChE against inhibition by agricultural chemicals.

The carbamate pyridostigmine bromide has been used as a pretreatment to protect individuals from the nerve agent soman. Previous research showed that pyridostigmine significantly protected human muscle acetylcholinesterase in vitro from soman and bovine red blood cell acetylcholinesterase from some organophosphorous pesticides. Research presented here demonstrates that pretreatment with other carbamates also protects acetylcholinesterase from inhibition by the pesticides chlorpyrifos-oxon and diazinon-oxon, but not from malaoxon.

Chronic hydrocarbon exposure of harlequin ducks in areas affected by the Selendang Ayu oil spill at Unalaska Island, Alaska.

We evaluated chronic exposure of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) to hydrocarbons associated with the 2004 M/V Selendang Ayu oil spill at Unalaska Island, Alaska. We measured levels of hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity (EROD) in liver biopsy samples as an indicator of hydrocarbon exposure in three oiled bays and one reference bay in 2005, 2006, and 2008. Median EROD activity in ducks from oiled bays was significantly higher than in the reference bay in seven of nine pairwise comparisons. These results indicated that harlequin ducks were exposed to lingering hydrocarbons more than three years after the spill.

Pyridostigmine bromide protection against acetylcholinesterase inhibition by pesticides.

Pyridostigmine bromide (PB) has been used to protect soldiers from the toxic effects of soman, a chemical warfare agent. Recent research shows that pyridostigmine bromide protects a significant percentage of acetylcholinesterase in isolated human intercostal muscle. Findings presented here indicate that red blood cell acetylcholinesterase is similarly protected by pyridostigmine bromide from the action of diisopropyl fluorophosphate and several organophosphate pesticides including chlorpyrifos-oxon, diazinon-oxon, and paraoxon, but not malaoxon, using the bovine red blood cell as a subject. These findings suggest that pretreatment with PB may protect growers, farmworkers, first responders, and the public, in general, from the effects of selected pesticides.

Protection of human muscle acetylcholinesterase from soman by pyridostigmine bromide.

INTRODUCTION: Pretreatment with pyridostigmine bromide (PB) of human intercostal muscle fibers exposed to the irreversible acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor soman was investigated. METHODS: Muscles were pretreated with 3 × 10(-6) M PB or saline for 20 minutes, then exposed to 10(-7) M soman for 10 minutes. RESULTS: AChE of muscles treated with soman alone was inhibited >95%. In contrast, PB pretreatment of soman-exposed bundles protected 20% of AChE activity. AChE of bundles exposed to PB alone recovered after 4 hours, but bundles exposed to both PB and soman did not. Soman-induced reduction of resting membrane potentials and increment of amplitudes and decay times of miniature endplate potentials (MEPPs) were partially corrected by PB pretreatment. CONCLUSIONS: In vitro pretreatment of human muscles with PB protected up to 20% of muscle AChE and ameliorated some deleterious effects on endplate physiology induced by soman.

Cytochrome P4501A biomarker indication of the timeline of chronic exposure of Barrow's goldeneyes to residual Exxon Valdez oil.

We examined hepatic EROD activity, as an indicator of CYP1A induction, in Barrow's goldeneyes captured in areas oiled during the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill and those from nearby unoiled areas. We found that average EROD activity differed between areas during 2005, although the magnitude of the difference was reduced relative to a previous study from 1996/1997, and we found that areas did not differ by 2009. Similarly, we found that the proportion of individuals captured from oiled areas with elevated EROD activity (≥ 2 times unoiled average) declined from 41% in winter 1996/1997 to 10% in 2005 and 15% in 2009. This work adds to a body of literature describing the timelines over which vertebrates were exposed to residual Exxon Valdez oil and indicates that, for Barrow's goldeneyes in Prince William Sound, exposure persisted for many years with evidence of substantially reduced exposure by 2 decades after the spill.