Common and dissociable regional cerebral blood flow differences associate with dimensions of psychopathology across categorical diagnoses.

The high comorbidity among neuropsychiatric disorders suggests a possible common neurobiological phenotype. Resting-state regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) can be measured noninvasively with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and abnormalities in regional CBF are present in many neuropsychiatric disorders. Regional CBF may also provide a useful biological marker across different types of psychopathology. To investigate CBF changes common across psychiatric disorders, we capitalized upon a sample of 1042 youths (ages 11-23 years) who completed cross-sectional imaging as part of the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort. CBF at rest was quantified on a voxelwise basis using arterial spin labeled perfusion MRI at 3T. A dimensional measure of psychopathology was constructed using a bifactor model of item-level data from a psychiatric screening interview, which delineated four factors (fear, anxious-misery, psychosis and behavioral symptoms) plus a general factor: overall psychopathology. Overall psychopathology was associated with elevated perfusion in several regions including the right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and left rostral ACC. Furthermore, several clusters were associated with specific dimensions of psychopathology. Psychosis symptoms were related to reduced perfusion in the left frontal operculum and insula, whereas fear symptoms were associated with less perfusion in the right occipital/fusiform gyrus and left subgenual ACC. Follow-up functional connectivity analyses using resting-state functional MRI collected in the same participants revealed that overall psychopathology was associated with decreased connectivity between the dorsal ACC and bilateral caudate. Together, the results of this study demonstrate common and dissociable CBF abnormalities across neuropsychiatric disorders in youth.

Prefrontal cortical thinning links to negative symptoms in schizophrenia via the ENIGMA consortium.

BACKGROUND: Our understanding of the complex relationship between schizophrenia symptomatology and etiological factors can be improved by studying brain-based correlates of schizophrenia. Research showed that impairments in value processing and executive functioning, which have been associated with prefrontal brain areas [particularly the medial orbitofrontal cortex (MOFC)], are linked to negative symptoms. Here we tested the hypothesis that MOFC thickness is associated with negative symptom severity. METHODS: This study included 1985 individuals with schizophrenia from 17 research groups around the world contributing to the ENIGMA Schizophrenia Working Group. Cortical thickness values were obtained from T1-weighted structural brain scans using FreeSurfer. A meta-analysis across sites was conducted over effect sizes from a model predicting cortical thickness by negative symptom score (harmonized Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms or Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale scores). RESULTS: Meta-analytical results showed that left, but not right, MOFC thickness was significantly associated with negative symptom severity (ß std = -0.075; p = 0.019) after accounting for age, gender, and site. This effect remained significant (p = 0.036) in a model including overall illness severity. Covarying for duration of illness, age of onset, antipsychotic medication or handedness weakened the association of negative symptoms with left MOFC thickness. As part of a secondary analysis including 10 other prefrontal regions further associations in the left lateral orbitofrontal gyrus and pars opercularis emerged. CONCLUSIONS: Using an unusually large cohort and a meta-analytical approach, our findings point towards a link between prefrontal thinning and negative symptom severity in schizophrenia. This finding provides further insight into the relationship between structural brain abnormalities and negative symptoms in schizophrenia.

Positive symptoms associate with cortical thinning in the superior temporal gyrus via the ENIGMA Schizophrenia consortium.

OBJECTIVE: Based on the role of the superior temporal gyrus (STG) in auditory processing, language comprehension and self-monitoring, this study aimed to investigate the relationship between STG cortical thickness and positive symptom severity in schizophrenia. METHOD: This prospective meta-analysis includes data from 1987 individuals with schizophrenia collected at seventeen centres around the world that contribute to the ENIGMA Schizophrenia Working Group. STG thickness measures were extracted from T1-weighted brain scans using FreeSurfer. The study performed a meta-analysis of effect sizes across sites generated by a model predicting left or right STG thickness with a positive symptom severity score (harmonized SAPS or PANSS-positive scores), while controlling for age, sex and site. Secondary models investigated relationships between antipsychotic medication, duration of illness, overall illness severity, handedness and STG thickness. RESULTS: Positive symptom severity was negatively related to STG thickness in both hemispheres (left: ßstd = -0.052; P = 0.021; right: ßstd = -0.073; P = 0.001) when statistically controlling for age, sex and site. This effect remained stable in models including duration of illness, antipsychotic medication or handedness. CONCLUSION: Our findings further underline the important role of the STG in hallmark symptoms in schizophrenia. These findings can assist in advancing insight into symptom-relevant pathophysiological mechanisms in schizophrenia.

Subcortical brain volume abnormalities in 2028 individuals with schizophrenia and 2540 healthy controls via the ENIGMA consortium.

The profile of brain structural abnormalities in schizophrenia is still not fully understood, despite decades of research using brain scans. To validate a prospective meta-analysis approach to analyzing multicenter neuroimaging data, we analyzed brain MRI scans from 2028 schizophrenia patients and 2540 healthy controls, assessed with standardized methods at 15 centers worldwide. We identified subcortical brain volumes that differentiated patients from controls, and ranked them according to their effect sizes. Compared with healthy controls, patients with schizophrenia had smaller hippocampus (Cohen's d=-0.46), amygdala (d=-0.31), thalamus (d=-0.31), accumbens (d=-0.25) and intracranial volumes (d=-0.12), as well as larger pallidum (d=0.21) and lateral ventricle volumes (d=0.37). Putamen and pallidum volume augmentations were positively associated with duration of illness and hippocampal deficits scaled with the proportion of unmedicated patients. Worldwide cooperative analyses of brain imaging data support a profile of subcortical abnormalities in schizophrenia, which is consistent with that based on traditional meta-analytic approaches. This first ENIGMA Schizophrenia Working Group study validates that collaborative data analyses can readily be used across brain phenotypes and disorders and encourages analysis and data sharing efforts to further our understanding of severe mental illness.

Connectome-wide network analysis of youth with Psychosis-Spectrum symptoms.

Adults with psychotic disorders have dysconnectivity in critical brain networks, including the default mode (DM) and the cingulo-opercular (CO) networks. However, it is unknown whether such deficits are present in youth with less severe symptoms. We conducted a multivariate connectome-wide association study examining dysconnectivity with resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging in a population-based cohort of 188 youths aged 8-22 years with psychosis-spectrum (PS) symptoms and 204 typically developing (TD) comparators. We found evidence for multi-focal dysconnectivity in PS youths, implicating the bilateral anterior cingulate, frontal pole, medial temporal lobe, opercular cortex and right orbitofrontal cortex. Follow-up seed-based and network-level analyses demonstrated that these results were driven by hyper-connectivity among DM regions and diminished connectivity among CO regions, as well as diminished coupling between frontal and DM regions. Collectively, these results provide novel evidence for functional dysconnectivity in PS youths, which show marked correspondence to abnormalities reported in adults with established psychotic disorders.

The ubiquitin ligase SCF(Grr1) is required for Gal2p degradation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

F-box proteins represent the substrate-specificity determinants of the SCF ubiquitin ligase complex. We previously reported that the F-box protein Grr1p is one of the proteins involved in the transmission of glucose-generated signal for proteolysis of the galactose transporter Gal2p and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. In this study, we show that the other components of SCF(Grr1), including Skp1, Rbx1p, and the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Cdc34, are also necessary for glucose-induced Gal2p degradation. This suggests that transmission of the glucose signal involves an SCF(Grr1)-mediated ubiquitination step. However, almost superimposable ubiquitination patterns of Gal2p observed in wild-type and grr1Delta mutant cells imply that Gal2p is not the primary target of SCF(Grr1) ubiquitin ligase. In addition, we demonstrate here that glucose-induced Gal2p proteolysis is a cell-cycle-independent event.

CPY* and the power of yeast genetics in the elucidation of quality control and associated protein degradation of the endoplasmic reticulum.

CPY* is a mutated and malfolded secretory enzyme (carboxypeptidase yscY, Gly255Arg), which is imported into the endoplasmic reticulum but never reaches the vacuole, the destination of its wild type counterpart. Its creation, through mutation, had a major impact on the elucidation of the mechanisms of quality control and associated protein degradation of the endoplasmic reticulum, the eukaryotic organelle, where secretory proteins start the passage to their site of action. The use of CPY* and yeast genetics led to the discovery of a new cellular principle, the retrograde transport of lumenal malfolded proteins across the ER membrane back to their site of synthesis, the cytoplasm. These tools furthermore paved the way for our current understanding of the basic mechanism of malfolded protein discovery in the ER and their ubiquitin-proteasome driven elimination in the cytosol (ERQD).

From lysosome to proteasome: the power of yeast in the dissection of proteinase function in cellular regulation and waste disposal.

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has turned out to be an invaluable tool in the molecular biological sciences for elucidating the housekeeping functions of eukaryotic cells. Due to its easy amenability to biochemical, genetic, molecular biological and cell biological experimentation, including genomics and proteomics, yeast has become one of the most frequently used eukaryotic model organisms. One of the fields where studies in yeast have a truly pacemaking character is cellular control by proteolysis. The function of vacuolar (lysosomal) proteolysis was elucidated. The in vivo role of ubiquitin and its relation to the proteasome was uncovered. This research led to an avalanche of studies in many different eukaryotic systems, including mammals, and provided us with surprising new insights in cellular control in health and disease.

The proteasomal substrate Stm1 participates in apoptosis-like cell death in yeast.

We have identified the yeast gene STM1 in an overexpression screen for new proteasomal substrates. Stm1 is unstable in wild-type cells and stabilized in cells with defective proteasomal activity and thus a bona fide substrate of the proteasome. It is localized in the perinuclear region and is required for growth in the presence of mutagens. Overexpression in cells with impaired proteasomal degradation leads to cell death accompanied with cytological markers of apoptosis: loss of plasma membrane asymmetry, chromatin condensation, and DNA cleavage. Cells lacking Stm1 display deficiency in the apoptosis-like cell death process induced by treatment with low concentrations of H(2)O(2). We suggest that Stm1 is involved in the control of the apoptosis-like cell death in yeast. Survival is increased when Stm1 is completely missing from the cells or when inhibition of Stm1 synthesis permits proteasomal degradation to decrease its amount in the cell. Conversely, Stm1 accumulation induces cell death. In addition we identified five other genes whose overexpression in proteasomal mutants caused similar apoptotic phenotypes.

Cic1, an adaptor protein specifically linking the 26S proteasome to its substrate, the SCF component Cdc4.

In eukaryotes, the ubiquitin-proteasome system plays a major role in selective protein breakdown for cellular regulation. Here we report the discovery of a new essential component of this degradation machinery. We found the Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein Cic1 attached to 26S proteasomes playing a crucial role in substrate specificity for proteasomal destruction. Whereas degradation of short-lived test proteins is not affected, cic1 mutants stabilize the F-box proteins Cdc4 and Grr1, substrate recognition subunits of the SCF complex. Cic1 interacts in vitro and in vivo with Cdc4, suggesting a function as a new kind of substrate recruiting factor or adaptor associated with the proteasome.

Expression and degradation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Many cystic fibrosis disease-associated mutations cause a defect in the biosynthetic processing and trafficking of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. Yeast mutants, defective at various steps of the secretory pathway, have been used to dissect the mechanisms of biosynthetic processing and intracellular transport of several proteins. To exploit these yeast mutants, we have employed an expression system in which the CFTR gene is driven by the promoter of a structurally related yeast ABC protein, Pdr5p. Pulse-chase experiments revealed a turnover rate similar to that of nascent CFTR in mammalian cells. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed that most CFTR colocalized with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) marker protein Kar2p and not with a vacuolar marker. Degradation was not influenced by the vacuolar protease mutants Pep4p and Prb1p but was sensitive to the proteasome inhibitor lactacystin beta-lactone. Blocking ER-to-Golgi transit with the sec18-1 mutant had little influence on turnover indicating that it occurred primarily in the ER compartment. Degradation was slowed in cells deficient in the ER degradation protein Der3p as well as the ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes Ubc6p and Ubc7p. Finally a mutation (sec61-2) in the translocon protein Sec61p that prevents retrotranslocation across the ER membrane also blocked degradation. These results indicate that whereas approximately 75% of nascent wild-type CFTR is degraded at the ER of mammalian cells virtually all of the protein meets this fate on heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Glucose-induced monoubiquitination of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae galactose transporter is sufficient to signal its internalization.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the addition of glucose to cells growing on galactose induces internalization of the galactose transporter Gal2p and its subsequent proteolysis in the vacuole. Here we report that the essential step in Gal2p down-regulation is its ubiquitination through the Ubc1p-Ubc4p-Ubc5p triad of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and Npi1/Rsp5p ubiquitin-protein ligase. Moreover, Gal2p appears to be stabilized in mutant cells defective in the ubiquitin-hydrolase Npi2p/Doa4p, and the mutant phenotype can be reversed by overexpression of ubiquitin. An analysis of the fate of Gal2p in cells overexpressing wild-type ubiquitin as well as its variants incompetent to form polyubiquitin chains showed that monoubiquitination of Gal2p is sufficient to signal internalization of the protein into the endocytic pathway.

Membrane topology and function of Der3/Hrd1p as a ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3) involved in endoplasmic reticulum degradation.

The endoplasmic reticulum contains a protein quality control system that discovers malfolded or unassembled secretory proteins and subjects them to degradation in the cytosol. This requires retrograde transport of the respective proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum back to the cytosol via the Sec61 translocon. In addition, a fully competent ubiquitination machinery and the 26 S proteasome are necessary for retrotranslocation and degradation. Ubiquitination of mutated and malfolded proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum is dependent mainly on the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Ubc7p. In addition, several new membrane components of the endoplasmic reticulum are required for degradation. Here we present the topology of the previously discovered RING-H2 finger protein Der3/Hrd1p, one of the new components of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The protein spans the membrane six times. The amino terminus and the carboxyl terminus containing the RING finger domain face the cytoplasm. Altogether, RING finger-dependent ubiquitination of malfolded carboxypeptidase yscY in vivo, as well as of Der3/Hrd1p itself in vitro and RING finger-dependent binding of Ubc7p, uncovers Der3/Hrd1p as the ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3) of the endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation process.

Ubc8p functions in catabolite degradation of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase in yeast.

The key gluconeogenic enzyme fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase) is synthesized when cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are grown on a non-fermentable carbon source. After shifting the cells to glucose-containing medium, in a process called catabolite degradation, FBPase is selectively and rapidly broken down. We have isolated gid mutants, which are defective in this glucose-induced degradation process. When complementing the defect in catabolite degradation of FBPase in gid3-1 mutant cells with a yeast genomic library, we identified the GID3 gene and found it to be identical to UBC8 encoding the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Ubc8p. The in vivo function of Ubc8p (Gid3p) has remained a mystery so far. Here we demonstrate the involvement of Ubc8p in the glucose-induced ubiquitylation of FBPase as a prerequisite for catabolite degradation of the enzyme via the proteasome. Like FBPase, Ubc8p is found in the cytoplasmic fraction of the cell. We demonstrate cytoplasmic degradation of FBPase.

Role for GDNF in biochemical and behavioral adaptations to drugs of abuse.

The present study examined a role for GDNF in adaptations to drugs of abuse. Infusion of GDNF into the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a dopaminergic brain region important for addiction, blocks certain biochemical adaptations to chronic cocaine or morphine as well as the rewarding effects of cocaine. Conversely, responses to cocaine are enhanced in rats by intra-VTA infusion of an anti-GDNF antibody and in mice heterozygous for a null mutation in the GDNF gene. Chronic morphine or cocaine exposure decreases levels of phosphoRet, the protein kinase that mediates GDNF signaling, in the VTA. Together, these results suggest a feedback loop, whereby drugs of abuse decrease signaling through endogenous GDNF pathways in the VTA, which then increases the behavioral sensitivity to subsequent drug exposure.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor induces excitotoxic sensitivity in cultured embryonic rat spinal motor neurons through activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway.

Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) can protect against or sensitize neurons to excitotoxicity. We studied the role played by various NTFs in the excitotoxic death of purified embryonic rat motor neurons. Motor neurons cultured in brain-derived neurotrophic factor, but not neurotrophin 3, glial-derived neurotrophic factor, or cardiotrophin 1, were sensitive to excitotoxic insult. BDNF also induces excitotoxic sensitivity (ES) in motor neurons when BDNF is combined with these other NTFs. The effect of BDNF depends on de novo protein and mRNA synthesis. Reagents that either activate or inhibit the 75-kDa NTF receptor p75NTR do not affect BDNF-induced ES. The low EC50 for BDNF-induced survival and ES suggests that TrkB mediates both of these biological activities. BDNF does not alter glutamate-evoked rises of intracellular Ca2+, suggesting BDNF acts downstream. Both wortmannin and LY294002, which specifically block the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) intracellular signaling pathway in motor neurons, inhibit BDNF-induced ES. We confirm this finding using a herpes simplex virus (HSV) that expresses the dominant negative p85 subunit of PI3K. Infecting motor neurons with this HSV, but not a control HSV, blocks activation of the PI3K pathway and BDNF-induced ES. Through the activation of TrkB and the PI3K signaling pathway, BDNF renders developing motor neurons susceptible to glutamate receptor-mediated cell death.

Genetic interactions of Hrd3p and Der3p/Hrd1p with Sec61p suggest a retro-translocation complex mediating protein transport for ER degradation.

The endoplasmic reticulum contains a quality control system that subjects misfolded or unassembled secretory proteins to rapid degradation via the cytosolic ubiquitin proteasome system. This requires retrograde protein transport from the endoplasmic reticulum back to the cytosol. The Sec61 pore, the central component of the protein import channel into the endoplasmic reticulum, was identified as the core subunit of the retro-translocon as well. As import of mutated proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum lumen is successfully terminated, a new targeting mechanism must exist that mediates re-entering of misfolded proteins into the Sec61 pore from the lumenal side de novo. The previously identified proteins Der3p/Hrd1p and, as we show here, Hrd3p of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are localised in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and are essential for the degradation of several substrates of the endoplasmic reticulum degradation machinery. Based on genetic studies we demonstrate that they functionally interact with each other and with Sec61p, probably establishing the central part of the retro-translocon. In the absence of Hrd3p, the otherwise stable protein Der3p/Hrd1p becomes rapidly degraded. This depends on a functional ubiquitin proteasome system and the presence of substrate molecules of the endoplasmic reticulum degradation system. When overexpressed, Der3p/Hrd1p accelerates CPY* degradation in Delta(hrd3) cells. Our data suggest a recycling process of Der3p/Hrd1p through Hrd3p. The retro-translocon seems to be build up at least by the Sec61 pore, Der3p/Hrd1p and Hrd3p and mediates both retrograde transport and ubiquitination of substrate molecules.