Nutritional status of school-age children (5-19 years) in South Asia: A scoping review.

Information on malnutrition for school-age children and adolescents (5-19 years) in South Asia is fragmented and inconsistent, which limits the prioritization of nutrition policies, programmes and research for this age group. This scoping review aimed to synthesize existing evidence on the burden of malnutrition for children and adolescents aged 5-19 years in South Asia, and on interventions to improve their nutritional status. Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Medline and Google Scholar were systematically searched for articles published between January 2016 and November 2022. Eligible studies reported the prevalence of undernutrition, overweight/obesity, micronutrient deficiencies and unhealthy dietary intakes, and interventions that aimed to address these in South Asia. In total, 296 articles met our inclusion criteria. Evidence revealed widespread, yet heterogeneous, prevalence of undernutrition among South Asian children and adolescents: thinness (1.9%-88.8%), wasting (3%-48%), underweight (9.5%-84.4%) and stunting (3.7%-71.7%). A triple burden of malnutrition was evident: the prevalence of overweight and obesity ranged from 0.2% to 73% and 0% to 38% (with rapidly rising trends), respectively, alongside persistent micronutrient deficiencies. Diets often failed to meet nutritional requirements and high levels of fast-food consumption were reported. Education, fortification, supplementation and school feeding programmes demonstrated beneficial effects on nutritional status. Comprehensive and regular monitoring of all forms of malnutrition among children and adolescents, across all countries in South Asia is required. Further, more large-scale intervention research is needed to ensure policy and programmes effectively target and address malnutrition among children and adolescents in South Asia.

Adolescent pregnancy is associated with child undernutrition: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Adolescent pregnancy is associated with poor fetal growth and development which, in turn, increases the risk of childhood wasting and underweight. However, evidence on how young maternal age affects childhood anthropometry beyond the neonatal period is limited. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined associations between adolescent pregnancy and child wasting and underweight and explored potential underlying social and biological factors. Peer-reviewed literature published in English since 1990 was systematically searched. Eligible studies presented data on wasting and/or underweight in children (≤59 months) born to adolescent mothers (10-19, or ≤24 years where applicable) from low- and middle-income countries. Data extraction used a predefined extraction sheet. Both meta-analysis and qualitative synthesis were performed. Of 92 identified studies, 57 were included in the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis showed that children born to adolescent versus adult mothers were at a higher risk of moderate (odds ratio [OR]: 1.12, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.00-1.26 p = 0.04) and severe underweight (OR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.08-1.35 p < 0.01). Associated risk of wasting was not statistically significant: (OR: 1.05, 95% CI: 0.98-1.12 p = 0.17); severe wasting (OR: 1.16, 95% CI: 0.68-1.96 p = 0.59). These findings were supported by the qualitative synthesis. Evidence on the potential role of biological/social factors was limited, but suggested an intermediary role of maternal nutritional status which warrants further exploration. Particularly in contexts where adolescent pregnancy remains common, interventions to both delay adolescent pregnancy and improve adolescent nutritional status could help reduce the risk of undernutrition in children and contribute to breaking the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition.

How age and sex affect treatment outcomes for children with severe malnutrition: A multi-country secondary data analysis.

Age and sex influence the risk of childhood wasting. We aimed to determine if wasting treatment outcomes differ by age and sex in children under 5 years, enroled in therapeutic and supplementary feeding programmes. Utilising data from stage 1 of the ComPAS trial, we used logistic regression to assess the association between age, sex and wasting treatment outcomes (recovery, death, default, non-response, and transfer), modelling the likelihood of recovery versus all other outcomes. We used linear regression to calculate differences in mean length of stay (LOS) and mean daily weight gain by age and sex. Data from 6929 children from Kenya, Chad, Yemen and South Sudan was analysed. Girls in therapeutic feeding programmes were less likely to recover than boys (pooled odds ratio [OR]: 0.84, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.72-0.97, p = 0.018). This association was statistically significant in Chad (OR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.39-0.95, p = 0.030) and Yemen (OR: 0.47, 95% CI: 0.27-0.81, p = 0.006), but not in Kenya and South Sudan. Multinomial analysis, however, showed no difference in recovery between sexes. There was no difference between sexes for LOS, but older children (24-59 months) had a shorter mean LOS than younger children (6-23 months). Mean daily weight gain was consistently lower in boys compared with girls. We found few differences in wasting treatment outcomes by sex and age. The results do not indicate a need to change current programme inclusion requirements or treatment protocols on the basis of sex or age, but future research in other settings should continue to investigate the aetiology of differences in recovery and implications for treatment protocols.

Research priorities for nutrition of school-aged children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries.

PURPOSE: A lack of data, intervention studies, policies, and targets for nutrition in school-age children (SAC) and adolescents (5-19 years) is hampering progress towards tackling malnutrition. To stimulate and guide further research, this study generated a list of research priorities. METHODS: Using the Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative (CHNRI) method, a list of 48 research questions was compiled and questions were scored against defined criteria using a stakeholder survey. Questions covered all forms of malnutrition, including micronutrient deficiencies, thinness, stunting, overweight/obesity, and suboptimal dietary quality. The context was defined as research focused on SAC and adolescents, 5 to 19 years old, in low-and middle-income countries, that could achieve measurable results in reducing the prevalence of malnutrition in the next 10 years. RESULTS: Between 85 and 101 stakeholders responded per question. Respondents covered a broad geographical distribution across 38 countries, with the largest proportion focusing on work in East and Southern Africa. Of the research questions ranked in the top ten, half focused on delivery strategies for reaching adolescents and half on improving existing interventions. There were few differences in the ranked order of questions between age groups but those related to in-school children and adolescents had higher expert agreement than those for out-of-school adolescents. The top ranked research question focused on tailoring antenatal and postnatal care for pregnant adolescent girls. CONCLUSION: Nutrition programmes should incorporate implementation research to inform delivery of effective interventions to this age group, starting in schools. Academic research on the development and tailoring of existing nutrition interventions is also needed; specifically, on how to package multisectoral programmes and how to better reach vulnerable and underserved sub- groups, including those out of school.

Predictors of preconception health knowledge among Canadian women: A nationwide cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Optimising preconception health-that is the health of women and men prior to a potential pregnancy-is increasingly recognised as fundamental to improving maternal and infant health outcomes. To date, limited research has been conducted examining preconception knowledge and studies focusing on preconception health behaviours have targeted certain behaviours, while overlooking others, with limited attention given to the interconception period and differences between multiparous and primiparous/nulliparous women. AIMS: To determine predictors of preconception health knowledge among Canadian women and to examine whether parity modified the effect of predictors on preconception knowledge. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study reported according to STROBE was undertaken from May to June 2019 in Canada with 928 women. An online questionnaire was used including the Preconception Health Knowledge Questionnaire, demographic characteristics, current health status, previous pregnancy outcomes and use of preconception care services. Ordinary least squares regression was used to model knowledge scores. Predictors were entered using theoretically driven hierarchical entry. RESULTS: Mean age of women was 34 years and one in five were immigrants. In the final model, household income (b = .17, SE = .07; p = .009), being born outside Canada (b = -.75, SE = .25; p = .003), miscarriage/stillbirth history (b = .47, SE = .21; p = .027) and previous use of preconception care (b = .97, SE = .20, p ⟩ .001) were predictive of preconception health knowledge. Effect modification by parity was not statistically significant in the final model (f = 1.22, p = .19). DISCUSSION: Women at higher risk of poor preconception knowledge, and who therefore stand to gain from preconception knowledge interventions may include those who (1) are socially and economically disadvantaged; (2) have not engaged in preconception care previously and (3) were not born in Canada. Ensuring national promotion of and access to preconception care is an important strategy to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes and optimise maternal and infant health. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the need for national promotion of and access to preconception health care for all pregnancy-planning families in order to improve perinatal outcomes. RELEVANCE FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE: When evaluating preconception health efforts, preconception health knowledge must be considered within the context of social determinants of health and individuals' abilities to act on their knowledge.

Interventions to promote development in the next 1000 days: A mapping review.

The next 1000 days - the period from 2 to 5 years of age - has been highlighted as a key developmental stage in the life-course. A mapping review was conducted to categorize existing literature on interventions in the next 1000 days that promote key developmental outcomes, including publications between 1990 and July 2020. A total of 805 intervention studies were included for data extraction in the review. The number of intervention studies has increased substantially from 2010. Most interventions were from high-income countries, with few (5%) from low- and lower-middle-income countries. Interventions including typically developing children (n = 593, 74%) were mostly (80%) implemented in early childhood care and education (ECCE) settings, with 15% taking place in the home or with families and 5% in community or healthcare settings. Children's literacy and language outcomes were the target of 27% of these interventions, while 25% of interventions targeted early childhood development more holistically or targeted multiple developmental domains. Social-emotional development and social skills were the target of 15% of interventions, motor development 13%, numeracy 8% and cognitive development 8%. For children with any developmental delay, disability, disease or exposure (n = 212), interventions frequently targeted Autism Spectrum Disorder (24%), language or literacy delays (21%), developmental delays or disability more generally (20%); 16% targeted behavioral (or conduct) problems; and 5% targeted attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Almost half (49%) took place in ECCE settings; 24% occurred in the home or with families, or in community (13%) and/or healthcare (14%) settings. This review highlights the need for more intervention research in low- and middle-income countries and for interventions supporting development in the next 1000 days. While the evidence base for interventions to promote development in this age group continues to expand, the most vulnerable children are not benefiting from this evidence.

How do children with severe underweight and wasting respond to treatment? A pooled secondary data analysis to inform future intervention studies.

Children with weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) <-3 have a high risk of death, yet this indicator is not widely used in nutrition treatment programming. This pooled secondary data analysis of children aged 6-59 months aimed to examine the prevalence, treatment outcomes, and growth trajectories of children with WAZ <-3 versus children with WAZ ≥-3 receiving outpatient treatment for wasting and/or nutritional oedema, to inform future protocols. Binary treatment outcomes between WAZ <-3 and WAZ ≥-3 admissions were compared using logistic regression. Recovery was defined as attaining mid-upper-arm circumference ≥12.5 cm and weight-for-height z-score ≥-2, without oedema, within a period of 17 weeks of admission. Data from 24,829 children from 9 countries drawn from 13 datasets were included. 55% of wasted children had WAZ <-3. Children admitted with WAZ <-3 compared to those with WAZ ≥-3 had lower recovery rates (28.3% vs. 48.7%), higher risk of death (1.8% vs. 0.7%), and higher risk of transfer to inpatient care (6.2% vs. 3.8%). Growth trajectories showed that children with WAZ <-3 had markedly lower anthropometry at the start and end of care, however, their patterns of anthropometric gains were very similar to those with WAZ ≥-3. If moderately wasted children with WAZ <-3 were treated in therapeutic programmes alongside severely wasted children, we estimate caseloads would increase by 32%. Our findings suggest that wasted children with WAZ <-3 are an especially vulnerable group and those with moderate wasting and WAZ <-3 likely require a higher intensity of nutritional support than is currently recommended. Longer or improved treatment may be necessary, and the timeline and definition of recovery likely need review.

Nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries across seven global regions: a synthesis of scoping reviews.

OBJECTIVE: To summarise available evidence on the nutritional status of school-age children and adolescents (5-19 years) from seven global regions and on interventions implemented to improve malnutrition in this population. SETTING: Global. DESIGN: Findings were compiled from seven scoping literature reviews, including data from low- and middle-income countries within the following UNICEF-defined global regions: East Asia and Pacific; Europe and Central Asia; South Asia; West and Central Africa; Eastern and Southern Africa; Middle East and North Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. RESULTS: A double burden of malnutrition was evident across the world regions reviewed: stunting, thinness, anaemia and other micronutrient deficiencies persisted, alongside rising overweight and obesity prevalence. Transitions towards diets increasingly high in energy-dense, processed and micronutrient-poor foods were observed. Evidence from intervention studies was limited, but suggested that providing multiple micronutrient-fortified foods or beverages at school may effectively target micronutrient deficiencies and facilitate weight gain in undernourished populations. Interventions to prevent or manage overweight and obesity were even more limited. There was minimal evidence of using novel technological approaches to engage school-age children and adolescents, or of involving them in designing interventions. CONCLUSION: The limited data available on nutrition of school-age children and adolescents are neither standardised nor comparable. Consensus on methods for assessing nutritional status and its determinants for this age group is urgently needed to set targets and monitor progress. Additionally, strategies are required to ensure that nutritious, safe and sustainable diets are available, affordable and appealing.

Anthropometric deficits and the associated risk of death by age and sex in children aged 6-59 months: A meta-analysis.

Risk of death from undernutrition is thought to be higher in younger than in older children, but evidence is mixed. Research also demonstrates sex differences whereby boys have a higher prevalence of undernutrition than girls. This analysis described mortality risk associated with anthropometric deficits (wasting, underweight and stunting) in children 6-59 months by age and sex. We categorised children into younger (6-23 months) and older (24-59 months) age groups. Age and sex variations in near-term (within 6 months) mortality risk, associated with individual anthropometric deficits were assessed in a secondary analysis of multi-country cohort data. A random effects meta-analysis was performed. Data from seven low-or-middle-income-countries collected between 1977 and 2013 were analysed. One thousand twenty deaths were recorded for children with anthropometric deficits. Pooled meta-analysis estimates showed no differences by age in absolute mortality risk for wasting (RR 1.08, p = 0.826 for MUAC < 125 mm; RR 1.35, p = 0.272 for WHZ < -2). For underweight and stunting, absolute risk of death was higher in younger (RR 2.57, p < 0.001) compared with older children (RR 2.83, p < 0.001). For all deficits, there were no differences in mortality risk for girls compared with boys. There were no differences in the risk of mortality between younger and older wasted children, supporting continued inclusion of all children under-five in wasting treatment programmes. The risk of mortality associated with underweight and stunting was higher among younger children, suggesting that prevention programmes might be justified in focusing on younger children where resources are limited. There were no sex differences by age in mortality risk for all deficits.

Integrating Women and Girls' Nutrition Services into Health Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review.

Women's nutrition has been highlighted as a global priority to ensure the health and well-being of both them and future generations. This systematic review summarises the available literature on the integration of nutrition services for girls and women of reproductive age (GWRA) into existing public health systems across low- and middle-income countries, as well as any barriers to integration. We searched PubMed and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews for articles published since 2011 according to eligibility criteria. A total of 69 articles were included. Evidence suggested that several services for GWRA are well integrated into public health systems, including antenatal care services, nutrition education and counselling, and micronutrient supplementation programmes. However, there was limited evidence on the integration of family planning, adolescent health, and reproductive health services. Barriers to integration fell into five main themes: lack of training and capacity building, poor multisectoral linkages and coordination, weak advocacy, lack of M&E systems, and inequity. We identified a lack of evidence and services for non-pregnant GWRA and for women postpartum. Addressing barriers to integration and gaps in nutrition services for GWRA would increase service coverage and contribute to improving health outcomes for GWRA and future generations.

Towards standardised and valid anthropometric indicators of nutritional status in middle childhood and adolescence.

Recognition of the importance of nutrition during middle childhood (age 5-9 years) and adolescence (age 10-19 years) is increasing, particularly in the context of global food insecurity and rising overweight and obesity rates. Until now, policy makers have been slow to respond to rapidly changing patterns of malnutrition across these age groups. One barrier has been a scarcity of consistent and regular nutrition surveillance systems for these age groups. What should be measured, and how best to operationalise anthropometric indicators that have been the cornerstone of nutrition surveillance in younger children and in adults, has been the topic of ongoing debate. Even with consensus on the importance of a given anthropometric indicator, difficulties arise in interpreting trends over time and between countries owing to the use of different terminologies, reference data, and cutoff points. In this Viewpoint we highlight the need to revisit anthropometric indicators across middle childhood and adolescence, a process that will require WHO and UNICEF coordination, the engagement of national implementors and policy makers, and partnership with research communities and donors.

The Healthy Aging Adult South Africa report card: a systematic review of the evidence between 2013 and 2020 for middle-aged South African men and women.

Due to the increasing non-communicable disease burden in Africa, several strategies that target the major lifestyle and physiological risk factors have been implemented to combat such diseases. The Healthy Aging Adult South Africa report card systematically reviews national and regional prevalence data of middle-aged South African adults (45-65 years) published between 2013 and 2020 on diet, physical activity, tobacco use and alcohol consumption, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and diabetes mellitus. Each indicator was assigned two grades, (1) based on the availability of prevalence data, and (2) based on whether policies have been proposed and implemented for the respective indicators. Alcohol consumption, obesity, hypertension and diabetes received an A grade for the availability of prevalence data. Tobacco use and diet received an A grade for policy and implementation. Gaps have been identified that need to be filled by future research focusing on continued surveillance of all indicators in order to inform and implement effective policies.

Anti-inflammatory diets reduce the risk of excessive gestational weight gain in urban South Africans from the Soweto First 1000-Day Study (S1000).

PURPOSE: To (i): examine whether maternal dietary inflammation assessed using the dietary inflammatory index (DII) is associated with gestational weight gain (GWG) and delivery outcomes in urban South African women from the Soweto First 1000-Day Study (S1000); and (ii): explore whether serum high-sensitivity c-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels mediate these associations. METHODS: Energy-adjusted-DII (E-DII™) scores were calculated for 478 pregnant women using a quantitative food frequency questionnaire. GWG (kg/week) was assessed via anthropometry and hs-CRP concentrations were assessed in a sub-sample at < 14 (n = 263) and at 24-28 (n = 270) weeks gestational age. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models were used to examine associations between maternal E-DII scores, GWG, hs-CRP concentrations, and delivery outcomes. RESULTS: Positive vs. negative E-DII scores were associated with an increased odds of excessive weight gain (OR (95% CI): 2.23 (1.20; 4.14); P = 0.01) during pregnancy. Higher hs-CRP concentrations in the first trimester were associated with lower weight-for-length z-score (ß (95% CI): -0.06 (-0.11; -0.01) per 1 mg/l hs-CRP; P = 0.02) and a reduction in odds of a large-for-gestational age delivery (OR (95% CI): 0.66 (0.47; 0.94); P = 0.02). Higher hs-CRP concentrations in the second trimester were associated with an increased odds of delivering preterm (OR (95% CI): 1.16 (1.01; 1.32); P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of an anti-inflammatory diet during pregnancy reduced the risk of excessive GWG in a rapidly urbanising setting (Soweto, South Africa), where obesity prevalence rates are high. Further research is needed to better understand how maternal diet may ameliorate the effects of maternal adiposity on inflammatory milieu and fetal programming.

Nutrition in adolescent growth and development.

During adolescence, growth and development are transformative and have profound consequences on an individual's health in later life, as well as the health of any potential children. The current generation of adolescents is growing up at a time of unprecedented change in food environments, whereby nutritional problems of micronutrient deficiency and food insecurity persist, and overweight and obesity are burgeoning. In a context of pervasive policy neglect, research on nutrition during adolescence specifically has been underinvested, compared with such research in other age groups, which has inhibited the development of adolescent-responsive nutritional policies. One consequence has been the absence of an integrated perspective on adolescent growth and development, and the role that nutrition plays. Through late childhood and early adolescence, nutrition has a formative role in the timing and pattern of puberty, with consequences for adult height, muscle, and fat mass accrual, as well as risk of non-communicable diseases in later life. Nutritional effects in adolescent development extend beyond musculoskeletal growth, to cardiorespiratory fitness, neurodevelopment, and immunity. High rates of early adolescent pregnancy in many countries continue to jeopardise the growth and nutrition of female adolescents, with consequences that extend to the next generation. Adolescence is a nutrition-sensitive phase for growth, in which the benefits of good nutrition extend to many other physiological systems.

The headcam mother-infant interaction assessment tool: testing the feasibility and acceptability in Soweto, South Africa, using participatory engagement.

BACKGROUND: Many children in low- and middle-income countries lack the stimulation needed to support healthy growth and development. Sensitive interactions between caregivers and infants may promote healthy movement behaviours in infants, which could improve childhood growth and development. However, reliable measures for such interactions require testing in the South African context. The aim of this study was to test the acceptability and feasibility of the headcam caregiver-infant interaction assessment tool in mothers from Soweto, South Africa. METHODS: Nineteen mother and infant (6-24 months) pairs were asked to wear headcams (first-person observation) while participating in group and individual activities. Detailed instructions on headcam use were provided before and during these activities. Mothers were then asked to use the headcams, as well as photoframe cameras (which provided context of the interactions), in at least three, 5-min mother-infant engagement sessions at home over a 1-week period. Thereafter, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted to explore mothers' experiences of using the tool in the home setting. The feasibility of the headcam mother-infant interaction tool was assessed according to a priori criteria which scored (i) technical reliability of the devices and (ii) usability of the recorded footage. Acceptability was assessed according to emerging themes which were coded from the FGDs using a constant comparison method by two researchers. RESULTS: The headcam mother-infant assessment tool was found to be feasible in Soweto, and sufficient data was available to code. Three main themes emerged from the FGD analysis: use of the headcam, using the headcams in the home environment and using the photoframe vs. the headcam. Mothers remarked on the ease of using the tool across daily activities, the normality of their infant's behaviour during recording and the acceptability by other members of the household. Large amounts of wasted unusable recordings were produced, and challenges related to switching the cameras on and off and to headcam placement were discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that headcams are both an acceptable and feasible method for assessing mother-infant interactions in Soweto. However, improvements to the usability of the tool and the quality of the data collected should be made prior to future work.

Food insecurity, diet quality and body composition: data from the Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative (HeLTI) pilot survey in urban Soweto, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether food security, diet diversity and diet quality are associated with anthropometric measurements and body composition among women of reproductive age. The association between food security and anaemia prevalence was also tested. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from the Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative (HeLTI) study. Food security and dietary data were collected by an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Hb levels were measured using a HemoCue, and anaemia was classified as an altitude-adjusted haemoglobin level < 12·5 g/dl. Body size and composition were assessed using anthropometry and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. SETTING: The urban township of Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Non-pregnant women aged 18-25 years (n 1534). RESULTS: Almost half of the women were overweight or obese (44 %), and 9 % were underweight. Almost a third of women were anaemic (30 %). The prevalence rates of anaemia and food insecurity were similar across BMI categories. Food insecure women had the least diverse diets, and food security was negatively associated with diet quality (food security category v. diet quality score: B = -0·35, 95 % CI -0·70, -0·01, P = 0·049). Significant univariate associations were observed between food security and total lean mass. However, there were no associations between food security and body size or composition variables in multivariate models. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that food security is an important determinant of diet quality in this urban-poor, highly transitioned setting. Interventions to improve maternal and child nutrition should recognise both food security and the food environment as critical elements within their developmental phases.

Understanding how maternal social and biological factors are related to fetal growth in an urban South African cohort.

The aim of this study was to identify social and biological drivers of fetal growth by examining associations with household, preconception, and pregnancy factors in a cohort from Soweto, South Africa. Complete data and ultrasound scans were collected on 519 women between 2013 and 2016 at 6 time points during pregnancy (<14, 14-18, 19-23, 24-28, 29-33 weeks, and 34-38 weeks). Household-level factors, preconception health, baseline body mass index (BMI), and demographic data were collected at the first visit. During pregnancy, gestational weight gain (GWG; kg/week) was calculated. At 24-28 weeks of gestation, oral glucose tolerance test was used to determine gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) status, and hypertension status was characterised. Longitudinal growth in head circumference, abdominal circumference, biparietal diameter, and femur length were modelled using the Superimposition by Translation and Rotation, a shape-invariant model which produces growth curves against gestational age. A priori identified exposure variables were then included in a series of sex-stratified hierarchical regression models for each fetal growth outcome. No household-level factors were associated with fetal growth. Maternal BMI at baseline was positively associated with all outcome parameters in males and females. Both GWG (in males and females) and GDM (in males) were significant positive predictors of abdominal growth. Males showed more responsiveness to abdominal growth, while females were more responsive to linear growth. Thus, fetal growth was largely predicted by maternal biological factors, and sexual dimorphism in the responsiveness of fetal biometry to biological exposures was evident.

Age and gender influence healthy eating and physical activity behaviours in South African adolescents and their caregivers: Transforming Adolescent Lives through Nutrition Initiative (TALENT).

OBJECTIVE: To: (i) understand facilitators and barriers to healthy eating practices and physical activity in younger and older urban adolescent South African boys and girls; and (ii) understand how the views of caregivers interact with, and influence, adolescent behaviours. DESIGN: Semi-structured focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted in July 2018. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. SETTING: Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-five participants were stratified into eight FGD as follows: two for young boys and girls (10-12 years); two for older boys and girls (15-17 years); two for caregivers of young adolescents (boys and girls); and two for caregivers of older adolescents (boys and girls). RESULTS: Unlike their caregivers, adolescents were not motivated to eat healthily and failed to appreciate the need to develop consistent patterns of both healthy eating and physical activity for their long-term health. Although adolescents gained independence with age, they commonly attributed unhealthy food choices to a lack of autonomy and, thereby, to the influence of their caregivers. Adolescents and caregivers perceived their engagement in physical activity according to distinct siloes of recreational and routine activity, respectively. Both similarities and differences in the drivers of healthy eating and physical activity exist in adolescents and caregivers, and should be targeted in future interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identified a complex paradigm of eating practices and physical activity in South African adolescents and their caregivers. We also highlighted the need for a new narrative in addressing the multifaceted and interrelated determinants of adolescent health within urban poor settings.

Maternal perspectives on infant feeding practices in Soweto, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To (i) describe the infant feeding practices of South African women living in Soweto and (ii) understand from the mothers' perspective what influences feeding practices. DESIGN: Semi-structured focus group discussions (FGD) and in-depth interviews (IDI) were conducted, and data were analysed using thematic analysis. SETTING: Soweto, South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Nineteen mothers were stratified into three FGD according to their baby's age as follows: 0-6-month-olds, 7-14-month-olds and 15-24-month-olds. Four mothers from each FGD then attended an IDI. RESULTS: Although mothers understood that breast-feeding was beneficial, they reported short durations of exclusive breast-feeding. The diversity and quality of weaning foods were low, and 'junk' food items were commonly given. Infants were fed using bottles or spoons and feeding commonly occurred separately to family meal times. Feeding practices were influenced by mothers' beliefs that what babies eat is important for their health and that an unwillingness to eat is a sign of ill health. As such, mothers often force-fed their babies. In addition, mothers believed that feeding solid food to babies before 6 months of age was necessary. Family matriarchs were highly influential to mothers' feeding practices; however, their advice often contradicted that of health professionals. CONCLUSIONS: In South Africa, interventions aimed at establishing healthier appetites and eating behaviours in early life should focus on: (i) fostering maternal self-efficacy around exclusive breast-feeding; (ii) challenging mixed feeding practices and encouraging more responsive feeding approaches and (iii) engaging family members to promote supportive household and community structures around infant feeding.

The association between fetal growth and neonatal adiposity in urban South African infants.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between maternal body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG) and fetal growth and neonatal adiposity in urban South Africans. METHODS: Maternal BMI was assessed at recruitment and GWG (kg/week) was calculated. Longitudinal fetal growth was measured via ultrasound and modelled using Superimposition by Translation and Rotation (SITAR). Neonatal adiposity was assessed using air displacement plethysmography or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Multiple linear regression models were used to examine associations between maternal BMI, GWG and SITAR fetal growth parameters and neonatal fat mass index (FMI; kg/m3 ) in 304 mother-neonate pairs. RESULTS: In pooled analyses, longitudinally modelled abdominal circumference size (ß = 0.64 kg/m3 , P < .001) and velocity (ß = 8.39 kg/m3 , P < .001) and biparietal diameter velocity (ß = 4.55 kg/m3 , P = .020) were positively associated with neonatal FMI. GWG was positively associated with neonatal FMI in preliminary models (ß = 1.07 kg/m3 per 1 kg/week; P = .040), with pooled models indicating mediation via fetal growth. CONCLUSION: In utero abdominal growth is predictive of neonatal adiposity. Additionally, greater fetal growth - particularly of the abdominal circumference - mediates the effect of GWG on neonatal adiposity. In settings such as South Africa, strategies to ensure healthy pregnancy weight gain can contribute to prevention of intergenerational obesity risk.