Distributed Poloidal Magnetic Field Measurement in Tokamaks Using Polarization-Sensitive Reflectometric Fiber Optic Sensor.

Determination of the poloidal magnetic field distribution in tokamaks is of prime importance for the successful operation of tokamaks. In this paper, we propose a polarization-sensitive reflectometry-based optical fiber sensor for measuring the spatial distribution of the poloidal magnetic field in tokamaks. The measurement method exploits the Rayleigh backscattering and Faraday magneto-optic effect in optical fibers. The former is an intrinsic property of optical fibers and enables distributed polarization measurements, while the latter arises in the presence of a magnetic field parallel to the optical fiber axis and rotates the polarization state of the light. When an optical fiber is looped around a toroidal section of the vacuum vessel, the local polarization rotation of the light is proportional to the local poloidal magnetic field in the tokamak. The proposed method is discussed theoretically and experimentally using the results from JET. The obtained magnetic field measurement shows a good agreement with that of the internal discrete coils. A potential solution to recover the magnetic field data from the noise-affected region of the optical measurement is proposed and is demonstrated through simulations using the JET magnetic field configuration.

Assessment of the Structural Vibration Effect on Plasma Current Measurement Using a Fiber Optic Current Sensor in ITER.

In this paper, we assess the effect of cryostat bridge vibrations on the plasma current measurement accuracy when using a fiber optic current sensor (FOCS) in ITER. The impact of vibrations on the light polarization state was first experimentally investigated using a miniaturized mock-up which represented a relevant part of the ITER FOCS structure. The set-up was then numerically simulated using the Jones matrix approach. Equivalent vibration matrices obtained from the experiment were used in the simulations to determine the effect of the vibrations on the FOCS accuracy. It is demonstrated that although the vibrations imply some changes in the polarization state, this effect can be strongly reduced when a proper low-birefringent spun optical fiber is used. The ITER requirement regarding the plasma current measurement accuracy can therefore be fulfilled.

Precursor beat length and spun period measurement of a spun fiber using polarization optical frequency domain reflectometry.

In this Letter, a novel, to the best of our knowledge, nondestructive method for measuring the spun fiber parameters (precursor beat length and spun period) is presented both theoretically and experimentally. The proposed technique is based on analyzing the polarization optical frequency domain reflectometer traces. Experimental results are in agreement with the theoretical predictions.

Plasma current measurement in ITER with a polarization-OTDR: impact of fiber bending and twisting on the measurement accuracy.

Using a polarization-sensitive optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR), plasma current in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) can be measured by investigating the Faraday effect-induced polarization rotation in a spun fiber placed around the Vacuum Vessel. However, intrinsic birefringence and external effects like fiber bending and twisting generate unwanted polarization changes and decrease the measurement accuracy. In this paper, a simulation-based approach is developed, considering bending and twisting effects to assess the performance of the reflectometer in measuring plasma current at ITER. The results demonstrate that, for a proper choice of spun sensing fiber parameters (intrinsic beat length and spun period), the performance of the sensor satisfies ITER accuracy.

Scientific Applications of Distributed Acoustic Sensing: State-of-the-Art Review and Perspective.

This work presents a detailed review of the development of distributed acoustic sensors (DAS) and their newest scientific applications. It covers most areas of human activities, such as the engineering, material, and humanitarian sciences, geophysics, culture, biology, and applied mechanics. It also provides the theoretical basis for most well-known DAS techniques and unveils the features that characterize each particular group of applications. After providing a summary of research achievements, the paper develops an initial perspective of the future work and determines the most promising DAS technologies that should be improved.

Theoretical assessment of the OTDR detector noise on plasma current measurement in tokamaks.

In this paper, we propose a theoretical study dedicated to the assessment of plasma current measurement in magnetic confinement fusion reactors using a polarization optical time-domain reflectometer (POTDR) setup with a low-birefringence fiber used as the sensing fiber. We consider the general case of a non-uniform magnetic-field distribution along the sensing fiber. The numerical simulations, based on Jones formalism taking into account the OTDR noise, provide the measurement error as a function of the plasma current. The measurement performance is evaluated for an ITER-relevant sensor configuration. We demonstrate that a signal-to-noise ratio of 6 dB, achievable in modern POTDRs, allows us to comply with the ITER requirements for plasma currents from 0 to 1 MA, while for the 1 to 20 MA range, the level is relaxed to 4 dB.

Spectral shadowing suppression technique in phase-OTDR sensing based on weak fiber Bragg grating array.

A postprocessing procedure is presented to suppress spectral shadowing in phase-OTDR sensing systems based on a weak fiber Bragg grating array. A complete theoretical analysis of the interfering signals has been carried out to identify a compensation method. The proposed approach has been applied to simulated and experimental phase-OTDR in the context of vibration measurements. Fast Fourier transform has been employed to analyze the obtained results, which has verified the validity of the proposed method to suppress spectral shadowing.

Simpplified extended Kalman filter phase noise estimation for CO-OFDM transmissions.

We propose a flexible simplified extended Kalman filter (S-EKF) scheme that can be applied in both pilot-aided and blind modes for phase noise compensation in 16-QAM CO-OFDM transmission systems employing a small-to-moderate number of subcarriers. The performance of the proposed algorithm is evaluated and compared with conventional pilot-aided (PA) and blind phase search (BPS) methods via extensive an Monte Carlo simulation in a back-to-back configuration and with a dual polarization fiber transmission. For 64 subcarrier 32 Gbaud 16-QAM CO-OFDM systems with 200 kHz combined laser linewidths, an optical signal-to-noise ratio penalty as low as 1 dB can be achieved with the proposed S-EKF scheme using only 2 pilots in the pilot-aided mode and just 4 inputs in the blind mode, resulting in a spectrally efficient enhancement by a factor of 3 and a computational effort reduction by a factor of more than 50 in comparison with the conventional PA and the BPS methods, respectively.

Nondestructive distributed measurement of supercontinuum generation along highly nonlinear optical fibers.

Supercontinuum generation (SCG) in optical fibers arises from the spectral broadening of an intense light, which results from the interplay of both linear and nonlinear optical effects. In this Letter, a nondestructive optical time domain reflectometry method is proposed for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, to measure the spatial (longitudinal) evolution of the SC induced along an optical fiber. The method was experimentally tested on highly nonlinear fibers. The experimental results are in a good agreement with the optical spectra measured at the fiber outputs.

Enhancement of optical pulse extinction-ratio using the nonlinear Kerr effect for phase-OTDR.

We present a novel approach for the generation of high extinction-ratio square pulses based on self-phase modulation of sinusoidally modulated optical signals (SMOS). A SMOS in a nonlinear medium experiences self-phase modulation induced by the nonlinear Kerr effect leading to the generation of distinct sidebands. A small variation in the peak power of the SMOS leads to a large variation in the power of the sidebands. Impressing a square pulse on the SMOS and filtering a sideband component results in a higher extinction-ratio square pulse. The advantage of high extinction-ratio pulses is demonstrated by a reduced background noise level in the Rayleigh backscattering traces of a phase-OTDR vibration measurement system.

Fiber-Optic Surface Temperature Sensor Based on Modal Interference.

Spatially-integrated surface temperature sensing is highly useful when it comes to controlling processes, detecting hazardous conditions or monitoring the health and safety of equipment and people. Fiber-optic sensing based on modal interference has shown great sensitivity to temperature variation, by means of cost-effective image-processing of few-mode interference patterns. New developments in the field of sensor configuration, as described in this paper, include an innovative cooling and heating phase discrimination functionality and more precise measurements, based entirely on the image processing of interference patterns. The proposed technique was applied to the measurement of the integrated surface temperature of a hollow cylinder and compared with a conventional measurement system, consisting of an infrared camera and precision temperature probe. As a result, the optical technique is in line with the reference system. Compared with conventional surface temperature probes, the optical technique has the following advantages: low heat capacity temperature measurement errors, easier spatial deployment, and replacement of multiple angle infrared camera shooting and the continuous monitoring of surfaces that are not visually accessible.

Full monitoring for long-reach TWDM passive optical networks.

This paper presents a novel and simple fiber monitoring system based on multi-wavelength transmission-reflection analysis for long-reach time and wavelength division multiplexing passive optical networks. For the first time, the full localization functionality of long-reach passive optical networks is possible with the proposed monitoring scheme, including supporting fault detection, identification, and localization in both feeder and distribution fiber segments. By measuring the transmitted and reflected/backscattered optical powers launched by an unmodulated continuous-wave optical source, the proposed solution is able to supervise the network with good spatial accuracy, a high detection speed and a low impact on data traffic. Both the theoretical analysis and experimental validation show that the proposed scheme is capable of providing an accurate fault monitoring functionality for long-reach time and wavelength division multiplexing passive optical networks.

Influence of the optical fiber type on the performances of fiber-optics current sensor dedicated to plasma current measurement in ITER.

In this paper, we compare, by means of simulations using the Jones formalism, the performances of several optical fiber types (low birefringence and spun fibers) for the measurement of plasma current in international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER). The main results presented in this paper concern the minimum value of the ratio between the beat length and the spun period, which allows meeting the ITER current measurement specifications. Assuming a high-birefringence spun fiber with a beat length of 3 mm, we demonstrate that the minimum ratio between the beat length and the spun period is 4.4 when considering a 28 m long sensing fiber surrounding the vacuum vessel. This minimum ratio rises to 10.14 when a 100 m long lead fiber connecting the interrogating system to the sensing fiber is taken into account.

Real-time measurement of dynamic accelerations with optical-fiber accelerometer based on polarization analysis.

This paper presents a novel technique for the measurement of accelerations using an optical-fiber accelerometer based on the analysis of polarization variations. The technique relies on the identification of six parameters of the fiber Mueller matrix through polarimetric measurements. We demonstrate by theoretical and experimental work that the sensitivity of the proposed method does not depend on the input polarization states sent into the fiber nor on the intrinsic fiber birefringence. The sensor has been successfully tested for acceleration amplitudes between 2.5 and 20 m/s² at a frequency of 120 Hz. The acceleration resolution increases from 0.1 m/s² around an acceleration of 2.5 m/s² to 0.35 m/s² around 20 m/s². The acceleration measurements can be performed every 160 µs.

Simulation of vibration-induced effect on plasma current measurement using a fiber optic current sensor.

An accurate measurement of the plasma current is of paramount importance for controlling the plasma magnetic equilibrium in tokamaks. Fiber optic current sensor (FOCS) technology is expected to be implemented to perform this task in ITER. However, during ITER operation, the vessel and the sensing fiber will be subject to vibrations and thus to time-dependent parasitic birefringence, which may significantly compromise the FOCS performance. In this paper we investigate the effects of vibrations on the plasma current measurement accuracy under ITER-relevant conditions. The simulation results show that in the case of a FOCS reflection scheme including a spun fiber and a Faraday mirror, the error induced by the vibrations is acceptable regarding the ITER current diagnostics requirements.

Localization and quantification of reflective events along an optical fiber using a bi-directional TRA technique.

We report on the theory and the implementation of a novel approach for the detection and localization of a reflective event along a fiber link. By launching a continuous-wave signal into both fiber ends and by analyzing the transmitted and reflected/backscattered optical powers, it is possible to localize an optical event and to quantify the induced insertion and return losses simultaneously. The novel idea of utilizing bi-directional measurement allows the localization of both reflective and non-reflective events. Theoretical and experimental studies show that for a 10 km-long single mode fiber, the localization accuracy can be in the range of 5.0 m.

Multi-wavelength Transmission-Reflection Analysis for fiber monitoring.

We propose and implement a novel approach based on multi-wavelength Transmission-Reflection Analysis (MW-TRA) technique for monitoring lossy events (e.g. disconnected connectors, fiber breaks and fiber bendings) along an optical fiber link. By launching un-modulated continuous-wave lights carried by different wavelengths into the fiber and measuring their transmitted and reflected/backscattered optical powers, our proposed MW-TRA scheme is able to localize any lossy event (including both reflective and non-reflective) and to quantify the corresponding insertion and return losses with high accuracy.

Femtosecond-laser-induced highly birefringent Bragg gratings in standard optical fiber.

We report highly birefringent fiber Bragg gratings in standard single-mode optical fiber realized with UV femtosecond pulses and line-by-line inscription. By controlling the three-dimensional positioning of the focused laser beam with respect to the fiber core, we achieve very high birefringence at the grating location in a single exposure. A maximum birefringence value of 7.93×10(-4) has been reached for 10th-order gratings when using 2 µJ pulses, which is to our knowledge the highest birefringence value reported so far. This birefringence results from UV-induced high-densification lines shifted from the center of the core, increasing the asymmetry of the induced-stress lines. With a Bragg wavelength spacing reaching more than 800 pm between polarization modes, such gratings are particularly well suited for selective filtering or, as demonstrated here, for temperature-insensitive transverse-strain measurements.

Development of a multi-point polarization-based vibration sensor.

In this paper we propose a novel kind of multi-point vibration sensor based on the polarization properties of light. Its principle relies on the combination of mechanical transducers with fiber Bragg gratings. When subject to vibrations, the mechanical transducers induce birefringence variations within the fiber and in turn modify the state of polarization, which appears as a power variation after going through a polarizer. The FBGs reflect light from different positions of the sensing fiber and provide wavelength multiplexing. We show that this sensor can provide the vibration frequencies in a quasi-distributed manner.

Linearity considerations in polarization-based vibration sensors.

In this paper, the characteristics of a polarization-based vibration sensor are theoretically and experimentally analyzed with a focus on its sensitivity and linearity. It is shown that this sensor can correctly recover the vibration frequency spectrum (i.e., with limited distortions) up to an acceleration of 140 m/s(2), with a sensitivity equal to 9.98 mV/(m/s(2)).