ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Gallbladder cancer (GBC) poses a significant risk to human health. Its development is influenced by numerous factors, particularly the homeostasis of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells. This homeostasis is crucial for tumor cell survival, and abnormal regulation of ROS is associated with the occurrence and progression of many cancers. Dihydrotanshinone I (DHT I), a biologically effective ingredient isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza, has exhibited cytotoxic properties against various tumor cells by inducing apoptosis. However, the precise molecular mechanisms by which dht I exerts its cytotoxic effects remain unclear. PURPOSE: To explore the anti-tumor impact of dht I on GBC and elucidate the potential molecular mechanisms. METHODS: The proliferation of GBC cells, NOZ and SGC-996, was assessed using various assays, including CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay and EdU staining. We also examined cell apoptosis, cell cycle progression, ROS levels, and alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential to delve into the intricate molecular mechanism. Quantitative PCR (qPCR), immunofluorescence staining, and Western blotting were performed to evaluate target gene expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. The correlation between nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) were examined using co-immunoprecipitation. Finally, the in vivo effect of dht I was investigated using a xenograft model of gallbladder cancer in mice. RESULTS: Our research findings indicated that dht I exerted cytotoxic effects on GBC cells, including inhibiting proliferation, disrupting mitochondrial membrane potential, inducing oxidative stress and apoptosis. Our in vivo studies substantiated the inhibition of dht I on tumor growth in xenograft nude mice. Mechanistically, dht I primarily targeted Nrf2 by promoting Keap1 mediated Nrf2 degradation and inhibiting protein kinase C (PKC) induced Nrf2 phosphorylation. This leads to the suppression of Nrf2 nuclear translocation and reduction of its target gene expression. Moreover, Nrf2 overexpression effectively counteracted the anti-tumor effects of dht I, while Nrf2 knockdown significantly enhanced the inhibitory effect of dht I on GBC. Meanwhile, PKC inhibitors and nuclear import inhibitors increased the sensitivity of GBC cells to dht I treatment. Conversely, Nrf2 activators, proteasome inhibitors, antioxidants and PKC activators all antagonized dht I induced apoptosis and ROS generation in NOZ and SGC-996 cells. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicated that dht I inhibited the growth of GBC cells by regulating the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway and Nrf2 phosphorylation. These insights provide a strong rationale for further investigation of dht I as a potential therapeutic agent for GBC treatment.
Subject(s)
Apoptosis , Cell Proliferation , Gallbladder Neoplasms , Kelch-Like ECH-Associated Protein 1 , Mice, Nude , NF-E2-Related Factor 2 , Phenanthrenes , Reactive Oxygen Species , Signal Transduction , Animals , Humans , Mice , Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/pharmacology , Apoptosis/drug effects , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Furans/pharmacology , Gallbladder Neoplasms/drug therapy , Kelch-Like ECH-Associated Protein 1/metabolism , Membrane Potential, Mitochondrial/drug effects , Mice, Inbred BALB C , NF-E2-Related Factor 2/metabolism , Phenanthrenes/pharmacology , Phosphorylation/drug effects , Quinones/pharmacology , Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism , Salvia miltiorrhiza/chemistry , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Xenograft Model Antitumor AssaysABSTRACT
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common joint disease characterized by the progressive degeneration of articular cartilage with no effective treatment methods available. Cartilage degeneration is closely related to an anabolic and catabolic imbalance in chondrocytes, and accumulating evidence has revealed that autophagy is a crucial protective mechanism that maintains the balance of anabolic and catabolic activities. Therefore, studies aiming to identify additional genes that regulate autophagy as a promising therapeutic strategy for OA are needed. In this study, we analyzed the GSE113825 datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus and validated that serum- and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SGK1) was upregulated in OA cartilage. Based on the results from loss-of-function studies, SGK1 silencing promoted the deposition of glycosaminoglycans in interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß)-treated chondrocytes, and significantly alleviated IL-1ß-induced downregulation of Collagen II and Aggrecan, as well as the upregulation of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 5 and matrix metalloproteinase-13. Furthermore, SGK1 knockdown reversed the IL-1ß-induced chondrocyte anabolic and catabolic imbalance by activating autophagy. Moreover, SGK1 directly bound to forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1) and increased its phosphorylation, which in turn resulted in its translocation from the nucleus. The decreased FoxO1 levels led to a decrease in LC3-I/LC3-II conversion and Beclin-1 levels, subsequently inhibiting autophagosome formation and increasing P62 levels, thus indicating a downregulation of autophagy. Taken together, we identified a critical role of SGK1 in the IL-1ß-induced chondrocyte anabolic and catabolic imbalance, which may represent a potential novel therapeutic target for OA.
