Antitoxin MqsA decreases antibiotic susceptibility through the global regulator AgtR in Pseudomonas fluorescens.

Type II toxin-antitoxin systems are highly prevalent in bacterial genomes and play crucial roles in the general stress response. Previously, we demonstrated that the type II antitoxin PfMqsA regulates biofilm formation through the global regulator AgtR in Pseudomonas fluorescens. Here, we found that both the C-terminal DNA-binding domain of PfMqsA and AgtR are involved in bacterial antibiotic susceptibility. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) analyses revealed that AgtR, rather than PfMqsA, binds to the intergenic region of emhABC-emhR, in which emhABC encodes an resistance-nodulation-cell division efflux pump and emhR encodes a repressor. Through quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR and EMSA analysis, we showed that AgtR directly activates the expression of the emhR by binding to the DNA motif [5´-CTAAGAAATATACTTAC-3´], leading to repression of the emhABC. Furthermore, we demonstrated that PfMqsA modulates the expression of EmhABC and EmhR. These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanism by which antitoxin PfMqsA contributes to antibiotic susceptibility.

Steroidal alkaloids isolated from Veratrum grandiflorum Loes. as novel Smoothened inhibitors with anti-proliferation effects on DAOY medulloblastoma cells.

Constitutive activation of Hedgehog (Hh) pathway is intimately related with the occurrence and development of several malignancies, such as medulloblastoma (MB) and other tumors. Therefore, small molecular inhibitors of Hh pathway are urgently needed. In this study, three new steroidal alkaloids, ⊿5 (20R, 24R) 23-oxo-24-methylsolacongetidine, ⊿5 (20S, 24R) 23-oxo-24-methylsolacongetidine and veralinine 3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 â†’ 2)-ß-D-glucopyranoside, together with six known alkaloids, 20-epi-verazine, verazine, protoverine 15-(l)-2'-methylbutyrate, jervine, veramarine and ß1-chaconine, were isolated and determined from Veratrum grandiflorum Loes. The dual-luciferase bioassay indicated that all compounds exhibited significant inhibitions of Hh pathway with IC50 values of 0.72-14.31 µM against Shh-LIGHT 2 cells. To determine whether these Hh pathway inhibitors act with the Smoothened (Smo) protein, which is an important oncoprotein and target for this pathway, BODIPY-cyclopamine (BC) competitive binding assay was preferentially performed. Compared with BC alone, all compounds obviously reduced the fluorescence intensities of BC binding with Smo in Smo-overexpression HEK293T cells through fluorescence microscope and flow cytometer. By directly interacting with Smo, it revealed that they were actually novel natural Smo inhibitors. Then, their anti-tumor effects were investigated against the human MB cell line DAOY, which is a typical pediatric brain tumor cells line with highly expressed Hh pathway. Interestingly, most of compounds had slight proliferation inhibitions on DAOY cells after treatment for 24 h same as vismodegib, while ß1-chaconine showed the strongest inhibitory effect on the growth of DAOY with IC50 value of 5.35 µM. In conclusion, our studies valuably provide several novel natural Smo inhibitors for potential targeting treatment of Hh-dependent tumors.

Advances in studies on steroidal alkaloids and their pharmacological activities in genus Veratrum / 中国中药杂志

Genus Veratrum plants contain a diversity of steroidal alkaloids, so far at least 184 steroidal alkaloids attributed to cevanine type(A-1～A-69), veratramine type(B-1～B-21), jervanine type(C-1～C-31), solanidine type(D-1～D-10) and verazine type(E-1～E-53), respectively, have been isolated and identified in the genus Veratrum. Their pharmacological activities mainly focused on decreasing blood pressure, anti-platelet aggregation and anti-thrombosis, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, and antitumor effect. This paper classified and summarized the 184 kind of steroidal alkaloids from the Veratrum plants and their major pharmalogical activities in order to provide the scientific basis for the further development and utilization of active alkaloids.

[Diterpenoids as PPARγ agonists from Siegesbeckia pubescens and their anti-inflammatory effects in vitro].

This study aims to investigate the PPARγ agonists isolated from the aqueous extract of Siegesbeckia pubescens( SPA) and their anti-inflammatory activities in vitro. The 293 T cells transfected transiently with PPARγ recombinant plasmid were used as a screening model to guide the isolation of PPARγ activitating components,and then PPARγ activities were measured by double luciferase reporter gene assay. The chemical structures were identified by chromatography or spectroscopic techniques. Furthermore,a UC inflammatory model in vitro was established on HT-29 cells by stimulating with TNF-α． The mRNA levels and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines on HT-29 cells,such as IL-1ß,TNF-α,IL-8,were detected by RT-PCR and ELISA. The results showed that five diterpenoids were obtained from the fraction D_(50) with the strongest PPARγ activity among others in SPA,and determined as kirenol( 1),darutigenol( 2),enantiomeric-2-ketone-15,16,19-three hydroxypinomane-8( 14)-ene-19-O-ß-D-glucoside( 3),darutoside( 4),enantiomeric-2-ß,15,16,19-four hydroxypinomane-8( 14)-ene-19-O-ß-D-glucoside( 5),respectively. All the compounds exhibited active effects on PPARγ in a concentration-dependent manner( P<0. 01). In addition,compound 1 significantly inhibited the expression of IL-1ß mRNA and secretion of IL-8 on HT-29 cells inflammation model( P<0. 001); both compounds 2 and 3 effectively inhibited the expression of IL-1ß,TNF-α,IL-8 mRNA and secretion of IL-8( P<0. 01 or P<0. 001),although at different extent; compound 4 significantly inhibited the expression of IL-1ß and TNF-α mRNA( P<0. 01 or P<0. 001),while compound 5 inhibited the expression of IL-1ß mRNA obviously( P<0. 001). In conclusion,the diterpenoids 1-5 isolated from S. pubescens have the PPARγ activation activities and potential effects of anti-UC in vitro.

Cynanbungeigenin C and D, a pair of novel epimers from Cynanchum bungei, suppress hedgehog pathway-dependent medulloblastoma by blocking signaling at the level of Gli.

Uncontrolled excessive activation of Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is linked to a number of human malignant tumorigenesis. To obtain valuable Hh pathway inhibitors from natural product, in present study, a pair of novel epimers, Cynanbungeigenin C (CBC) and D (CBD) from the plant Cynanchum bungei Decne were chemically characterized by multiple spectroscopic data and chemical derivatization, and evaluated for their inhibition on Hh pathway. Mechanistically, CBC and CBD block Hh pathway signaling not through targeting Smo and Sufu, but at the level of Gli. In addition, both eipmers significantly suppress Hh pathway-dependent Ptch+/-; p53-/- medulloblastoma in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, both CBC and CBD inhibited two Smo mutants induced Hh pathway activation, which suggested that they are potential compounds for the treatment of medulloblastoma with primary or acquired resistance to current Smo inhibitors. These results highlight the potential of CBC and CBD as effective lead compounds in the treatment of medulloblastoma and other Hh-dependent malignancy.

Two New Steroidal Aglycones from Roots of Cynanchun paniculatum.

Two new 13, 14/14, 15-disecopregnane-type skeleton C21 steroidal aglycones, neocynapanogenin G (1) and neocynapanogenin H (2), were isolated from the hydrolyzed extract of the CHCl3 soluble extract of the roots of Cynanchun paniculatum. Their structures were determined on the basis of chemical evidence and extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Compound 1 displayed signifidant inhibition of the Hedgehog signaling pathway in vitro.

The Loss of a Sugar Chain at C(3) Position Enhances Stemucronatoside K-Induced Apoptosis, Cell Cycle Arrest, and Hedgehog Pathway Inhibition in HT-29 Cells.

Stemucronatoside K (SMK) and its aglycone stephanthraniline A (STA) are the most representative of a series of novel C21 steriodal compounds that we have previously isolated from Asclepiadaceae plants. The objectives of this study were to investigate the antitumor activity of SMK and STA, and clarify the effect of the sugar chain at the C(3) position. Our results showed that both SMK and STA decreased the growth of HT-29 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Meanwhile, STA showed much stronger inhibitory effect than SMK. Treatment of HT-29 cells with STA increased the apoptotic cell numbers and the protein expression of cleaved caspase 3 and cleaved-PARP. G1 phase cell cycle arrest and decreased expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinases 4 were also observed after STA treatment. Furthermore, STA reduced the mRNA levels of four Hedgehog pathway components (GLI1, GLI2, GLI3, and PTCH1) and suppressed Shh-induced Hedgehog pathway activation in a concentration-dependent manner. These results indicated that SMK and STA could inhibit the growth of HT-29 cells by inducing apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and hedgehog pathway inhibition. The loss of sugar chain at C(3) position could enhance SMK's activity. This study is beneficial to understand the use of natural C21 steroids as antitumor lead compounds.

Stephanthraniline A suppressed CD4(+) T cell-mediated immunological hepatitis through impairing PKCθ function.

Stephanthraniline A (STA), a C21 steroid isolated from Stephanotis mucronata (Blanco) Merr., was previously shown to inhibit T cells activation and proliferation in vitro and in vivo. The purpose of this study was to further evaluate the in vivo immunosuppressive activity of STA and to elucidate its potential mechanisms. The results showed that pretreatment with STA significantly attenuated concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatitis and reduced CD4(+) T cells activation and aggregation in hepatic tissue in mice. STA directly suppressed the activation and proliferation of Con A-induced CD4(+) T cells, and inhibited NFAT, NFκB and MAPK signaling cascades in activated CD4(+) T cells in vitro. Moreover, it was proved that STA inhibited T cells activation and proliferation through proximal T cell-receptor (TCR) signaling- and Ca(2+) signaling-independent way. The molecular docking studies predicted that STA could tight bind to PKCθ via five hydrogen. The further findings indicated STA directly inhibited PKCθ kinase activity, and its phosphorylation in activated CD4(+) T cells in vitro. Collectively, the present study indicated that STA could protect against CD4(+) T cell-mediated immunological hepatitis in mice through PKCθ and its downstream NFAT, NFκB and MAPK signaling cascades. These results highlight the potential of STA as an effective leading compound for use in the treatment of CD4(+) T cell-mediated inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Two New 8, 14-seco-pregnane Steroidal Aglycones froni Roots of Cynanchum bungei.

Two new 8, 14-seco skeleton C(21) steroidal aglycones, cynanbungeigenin A (1) and cynanbungeigenin B (2), were isolated from the hydrolyzed extract of the EtOAc soluble extract of the roots of Cynanchum bungei. Their structures were determined on the basis of chemical evidence and extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy.

Steroidal aglycones from stems of Marsdenia tenacissima that inhibited the hedgehog signaling pathway.

Two novel steroidal aglycones, together with four known ones, were isolated from the hydrolysis extract of the CHCl3 soluble extract of the stems of Marsdenia tenacissima. Their structures were determined on the basis of chemical evidence and extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. These compounds displayed inhibition of the Hedgehog signaling pathway in vitro.

Three novel immunosuppressive steroidal glycosides from the stems of Stephanotis mucronata.

Three novel and one known C21 steroidal glycosides were isolated from the stems of Stephanotis mucronata. Their structures were determined on the basis of chemical evidence and extensive spectroscopic methods. The four C21 steroidal glycosides displayed significant immunosuppressive activities in vitro.

[Clinical efficacy of shenfu injection in treating severe sepsis and its effects on serum levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-10].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the therapeutic efficacy of Shenfu Injection (SFI) on patients with severe sepsis and its effects on serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-10 (IL-10). METHODS: Sixty-eight patients with severe sepsis were randomly assigned to the SFI group (36 cases, treated by SFI + routine therapy) and the control group (32 cases, treated by routine therapy). The acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II (APACHE II) score and Marshall score were observed before treatment, 3 and 7days after treatment. The therapeutic efficacy was assessed, and the 28th-day mortality rates were compared. The serum levels of IL-6 and IL-10 were determined by enzyme-labeled immunosorbent assay (ELISA) before and after treatment. C-reactive protein (CRP) was determined by immunoturbidimetric assay. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the APACHE II score, Marshall score, IL-6, IL-10, or CRP between the two groups before treatment (P>0.05). APACHE II score and Marshall score of all patients decreased after treatment, with more obvious decrease shown in the SFI group (P<0.05). The mortality rate in the SFI group and the control group was 25.0% (9/36) and 37.5% (12/32) respectively, with no significant difference shown between the two groups (P>0.05). The serum levels of IL-6 and CRP obviously decreased after 7 days of treatment (P<0.05). But more decrement was shown in the SFI group, showing significant difference when compared with the control group (P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the serum IL-10 level between the two groups before and after treatment (P>0.05). CONCLUSION: SFI could lower the serum IL-6 level, regulate the equilibrium of proinflammatory factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines in severe sepsis patients, thus playing a role in improving the therapeutic efficacy.

Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of different polysaccharides from the roots of Angelica dahurica.

The total crude polysaccharides (CADPs), isolated from the roots of Angelica dahurica by H(2) O extraction, EtOH precipitation, and dialysis, and the four fractions ADP1, ADP2, ADP3, and ADP4, obtained by gel filtration of the CADPs, were analyzed to characterize their composition and evaluated for their antioxidant activity using different in vitro tests such as the malondialdehyde (MDA)-production, the ferrous ion (Fe(2+) )-chelating, and the HO(.) radical-scavenging assays. The predominant neutral monosaccharides in the four fractions were identified as arabinose, galactose, and glucose, while the composition and ratio of the monosaccharides were different between the fractions. The CADPs and its fractions were found to significantly inhibit lipid peroxidation, chelate Fe(2+) , and scavenge HO(.) radicals, indicating that these polysaccharides possessed antioxidant activity. Among the four fractions, ADP4 exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity, which was stronger than that of the control antioxidant vitamin E (Vit E). Taken together, the chemical composition of these polysaccharides might affect their antioxidant activity, and ADP4 could be explored as a source of potential novel natural antioxidants for food and pharmaceutical purposes.

Stemucronatoside L, a pregnane glycoside from the roots of Stephanotis mucronata, inhibits Th1/Th2 immune responses in vitro.

Stemucronatoside L (SML), isolated from Stephanotis mucronata, could suppress the activation of T cells in vitro. However, the mechanisms responsible for its immunosuppressive activity remain poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether SML could suppress Th1/Th2 immune responses and to characterize the cellular mechanisms involved. Effects of SML on T-lymphocyte subsets and the production of Th1 cytokines IL-2 and IFN-gamma, and Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 from ConA-stimulated mice splenocytes were detected by flow-cytometric analysis and ELISA method, respectively. Furthermore, effects of SML on mRNA expression level of Th1/Th2 cytokines and transcription factors T-bet and GATA-3 were evaluated by RT-PCR analysis. SML not only significantly decreased the percentage of CD4(+) T cells and the CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio, but reduced the production of Th1/Th2 cytokines in a concentration-dependent manner. The mRNA expression levels of Th1/Th2 cytokines and transcription factors (T-bet and GATA-3) were also suppressed by SML. These results suggested that SML could simultaneously inhibit Th1/Th2 immune responses by suppressing gene expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines and transcription factors.

ISCOMs and ISCOMATRIX.

Immunostimulatory complexes (ISCOMs) are particulate antigen delivery systems composed of antigen, cholesterol, phospholipid and saponin, while ISCOMATRIX is a particulate adjuvant comprising cholesterol, phospholipid and saponin but without antigen. The combination of an antigen with ISCOMATRIX is called an ISCOMATRIX vaccine. ISCOMs and ISCOMATRIX combine the advantages of a particulate carrier system with the presence of an in-built adjuvant (Quil A) and consequently have been found to be more immunogenic, while removing its haemolytic activity of the saponin, producing less toxicity. ISCOMs and ISCOMATRIX vaccines have now been shown to induce strong antigen-specific cellular or humoral immune responses to a broad range of antigens of viral, bacterial, parasite origin or tumor in a number of animal species including non-human primates and humans. These vaccines produced by well controlled and reproducible processes have also been evaluated in human clinical trials. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of ISCOMs and ISCOMATRIX, including preparation technology as well as their application in humans and veterinary vaccine designs with particular emphasis on the current understanding of the properties and features of ISCOMs and ISCOMATRIX vaccines to induce immune responses. The mechanisms of adjuvanticity are also discussed in the light of recent findings.

Astilbotriterpenic acid induces growth arrest and apoptosis in HeLa cells through mitochondria-related pathways and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.

Astilbotriterpenic acid, a novel ursane-type triterpenoid from the rhizomes of Astilbe chinensis, has cytostatic properties in several cancer cell lines and induces apoptosis in HeLa cell. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which such properties are exerted, with special reference to the anti-proliferative and apoptotic potential on HeLa cells. Compound 1 showed a marked concentration- and time-dependent inhibition of HeLa cell proliferation, and induced G(0)/G(1) phase arrest of HeLa cell in a dose-dependent manner. There was a quick attenuation of mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsi(m)) with the alterations of Bcl-2/Bax mRNA express value in 1-treated HeLa, indicating the participation of a mitochondria-related mechanism. Pretreatment of a pan-caspase inhibitor (benzyloxycarbonyl)-Val-Ala-Asp-(fluoromethyl) ketone (z-VAD-fmk) significantly increases the viability of 1-treated HeLa cells implied that the participation of caspase; Western-blot analysis showed the activation of initiator caspase-8 and caspase-9, and executor caspase-3. Meanwhile, treatment with 1 stimulates the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HeLa cell. Taken together, our data showed that compound 1 induced growth arrest and apoptosis in HeLa cells through mitochondria-related pathways and ROS production, and may be further evaluated as a chemotherapeutic agent for human cancer.

Advances in saponin-based adjuvants.

Saponins are natural glycosides of steroid or triterpene which exhibited many different biological and pharmacological activities. Notably, saponins can also activate the mammalian immune system, which have led to significant interest in their potential as vaccine adjuvants. The most widely used saponin-based adjuvants are Quil A and its derivatives QS-21, isolated from the bark of Quillaja saponaria Molina, which have been evaluated in numerous clinical trials. Their unique capacity to stimulate both the Th1 immune response and the production of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) against exogenous antigens makes them ideal for use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens as well as for therapeutic cancer vaccines. However, Quillaja saponins have serious drawbacks such as high toxicity, undesirable haemolytic effect and instability in aqueous phase, which limits their use as adjuvant in vaccination. It has driven much research for saponin-based adjuvant from other kinds of natural products. This review will summarize the current advances concerning adjuvant effects of different kinds of saponins. The structure-activity relationship of saponin adjuvants will also be discussed in the light of recent findings. It is hoped that the information collated here will provide the reader with information regarding the adjuvant potential applications of saponins and stimulate further research into these compounds.

Immunomodulatory and antitumor activity of triterpenoid fractions from the rhizomes of Astilbe chinensis.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The objectives of this study were to evaluate the in vivo antitumor potential of the triterpenoid fraction from the rhizomes of Astilbe chinensis (Saxifragaceae) (Saxifragaceae) (ATF) and to elucidate its immunological mechanisms by determining its effects on the growth of mouse transplanted tumors and the immune response in naïve and tumor-bearing mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The mice inoculated with mouse tumor cell lines were treated per os with ATF at the doses of 20, 40, 60 mg/kg for 10 days. The effects of ATF on the growth of transplantable tumor, splenocyte proliferation, the activity of natural killer (NK) cells, and production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) from splenocytes in tumor-bearing mice were measured. Meanwhile, the effects of ATF on 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction and the sheep red blood cell (SRBC)-induced antibody response in naïve mice were also studied. RESULTS: ATF could not only significantly inhibit the growth of mice transplantable tumor, but also remarkably increase splenocytes proliferation, NK cells activity, and the level of IL-2 secreted by splenocytes in tumor-bearing mice, promote the DTH reaction and enhance anti-SRBC antibody level in naïve mice, which indicated that the ATF could improve both specific and non-specific cellular and humoral immune response. CONCLUSIONS: The antitumor activity of ATF might be achieved by improving immune response, and ATF could act as antitumor agent with immunomodulatory activity.

Contribution of the glycidic moieties to the haemolytic and adjuvant activity of platycodigenin-type saponins from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum.

Platycodin D (PD), platycodin D3 (PD3), and platycoside E (PE) were the platycodigenin-type saponins isolated from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum. All shared a platycodigenin skeleton and the same sugar side chains attached to C-28 of the aglycone, only differ from one another by the number of glycosyl units in sugar moieties attached to C-3. To assess the potential contribution of the glycidic chains to the biological activities and elucidate the structure-activity relationships of the platycodigenin-type saponins, these three saponins were evaluated for their haemolytic activities and adjuvant potentials on the cellular and humoral immune responses of mice against ovalbumin (OVA). Among three saponins, the ranking of the haemolytic activity was PD>PD3>PE (P<0.001). PD and PD3 could significantly enhance mitogen- and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA-immunized mice (P<0.001). The order of increasing OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation was PD>PD3>PE (P<0.05, P<0.01, or P<0.001). The sera OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b antibody levels in the OVA-immunized mice were significantly enhanced by PD and PD3. However, PE only significantly promoted the production of the sera OVA-specific IgG2a and IgG2b antibody in the OVA-immunized mice. Adjuvant potentials of PD on antibody responses were higher than those of PD3 and PE (P<0.05, P<0.01, or P<0.001). Meanwhile, PD also significantly enhanced the mRNA expression of cytokines IL-2, IFN-gamma, IL-4, and IL-10 and transcription factors T-bet and GATA-3 in mice splenocyte induced by Con A (P<0.05, P<0.01, or P<0.001). These results suggested that the number of sugar residues in the glycidic chains attached to C-3 of aglycone could affect the haemolytic and adjuvant activities of platycodigenin-type saponins, and that PD had immunological adjuvant activity, and simultaneously elicited a Th1 and Th2 immune response by regulating gene expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines and transcription factors.

[Saponins from roots of Stephanotis mucronata].

OBJECTIVE: To study the chemical constituents from n-BuOH fraction of the roots of Stephanotis mucronata. METHOD: The compounds were separated by chromatographic methods. A combination of UV, MS, and NMR spectroscopic methods was applied to identify structure of these compounds. RESULT: Four oleane saponins were isolated and identified as sitakisoside VII (1), sitakisoside VI (2), sitakisoside II (3), and sitakisoside I (4). CONCLUSION: These four compounds were obtained for the first time from this plant.