A developmental cascade model of adolescent peer relationships, substance use, and psychopathological symptoms from child maltreatment.

INTRODUCTION: Although previous studies have demonstrated high intercorrelations among deviant peer affiliation, substance use, externalizing and internalizing symptoms in adolescence, these studies have been limited because they did not examine 1) the associations over time by assuming one particular sequence; and 2) child maltreatment effects. METHODS: This study included 617 adolescents (54.3 % girls, 55.6 % Black) at-risk of maltreatment living in the U.S and primarily low-income. Deviant peer affiliation was assessed at ages 12, 14, and 16 using 13 items from the modified version of the Youth Risk Behavior and Monitoring the Future Survey. Externalizing and internalizing symptoms were measured at ages 12, 14, and 16 using the Child Behavior Checklist. The number of substances used (ages 12, 14, 16, and 18) were created by summing the self-reported alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use. Each type of maltreatment (birth to age 12) was assessed using the self-report. RESULTS: Autoregressive cross-lagged structural equation modeling explained the stability effects within each domain, as well as how different maltreatment types affect diverse developmental processes. Cross-lagged results showed the socialization effects of peers on substance use, whereas the peer selection effects on externalizing symptoms. Physical abuse was only associated with externalizing symptoms, while sexual abuse was associated with both externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Additionally, emotional abuse was associated with deviant peer affiliation and substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Identifying the underlying reciprocal processes offers a deeper understanding of peer relationships in the substance use and externalizing symptoms among at-risk of maltreatment sample.

Harsh parenting among veterans: parents' military-related PTSD, mentalization, and pre-military trauma.

Objectives: Veteran parents experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may resort to harsh parenting. The indirect pathway from parental military-related PTSD to harsh parenting, and the moderating role of parents' pre-military trauma histories, has been less explored. Informed by mentalization theory, as well as trauma-sensitive and posttraumatic growth perspectives, we aim to explore the associations between veteran parents' military-related PTSD, mentalization, harsh parenting, and prior trauma before military service. Methods: Data were collected from an online research panel of 509 veteran parents with children under 10. We employed Structural Equation Models to test indirect and moderating effects. Results: We identified an indirect effect of parental pre-mentalization from military PTSD to harsh parenting [corporal punishment: b = 0.35, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.23, 0.46); psychological aggression: b = 0.14, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.09, 0.19)]. Multi-group analysis on four parent groups (parents with only pre-military physical trauma, parents with only pre-military psychological trauma, parents with both pre-military physical and psychological trauma, and parents with no pre-military physical or psychological trauma) highlighted differences in these associations, particularly between parents with only pre-military physical trauma and those without any physical and psychological trauma. The military-related PTSD effects on psychological aggression, corporal punishment, and pre-mentalization were all significantly higher for parents without pre-military physical and psychological trauma. Conclusion: Modifying parents' interpretation of their child's mental states can potentially counteract the effects of veterans' military PTSD on harsh parenting. Family-based programs should be created considering veteran parents' pre-military trauma histories.

Racial differences in early adolescent substance use: Child abuse types and family/peer substance use as predictors.

This study examined the associations among child abuse types, family/peer substance use, and adolescent substance use, as well as testing whether these associations vary by race. The sample was derived from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (N = 562). Child sexual abuse, family substance use, and peer substance use were associated with a higher likelihood of adolescent substance use. Sexual abuse was more strongly associated with substance use in Black youth than in White youth. Conversely, greater peer substance use had a stronger association with substance use in White youth than in Black youth.

Neglect, Abuse, and Adaptive Functioning: Food Security and Housing Stability as Protective Factors for Adolescents.

This study addresses gaps in knowledge of protective factors that support adaptive functioning among maltreated adolescents. The sample included 1003 high-risk youths participating in the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (53% female, 56% Black, and 82% living in poverty). Adolescent neglect (Exposure to Risky Situations, Lack of Monitoring, Inattention to Basic Needs, Permitting Misbehavior, Lack of Support) and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse were self-reported at age 16. Age 18 adaptive functioning measures included healthcare receipt (medical, dental, and mental health), self-rated global health, high school graduation or enrollment, prosocial activities, peer relationships (Companionship, Conflict, Satisfaction, and Intimacy), and independent living skills. Previous childhood maltreatment, demographics, and earlier prosocial activities and peer relationships were controls. Structural equation modeling showed that adolescent neglect and abuse were associated with lower adaptive functioning. Multigroup models showed protective effects for food security on the relationships between sexual abuse and self-rated health and between Inadequate Monitoring and Companionship. Housing stability buffered relationships between Inadequate Support and high school graduation or enrollment and between Permitting Misbehavior and independent living skills. Findings imply the need for adolescent-focused prevention, including the promotion of food security and housing stability to support adaptive functioning in maltreated adolescents. However, notable mixed findings show the need for additional research.

Adolescent Neglect and Health Risk.

This study examined relationships between adolescent neglect and abuse and later health risk in a sample of 1050 youth (53% female, 56% Black, and 24% White) from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. At age 16, the youth reported any adolescent exposure to neglect and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. At age 18, they reported risk behaviors (delinquency, substance use, and sexual behavior) and emotional and behavioral problems (externalizing and internalizing problems, suicidality). Control variables were childhood maltreatment (self-reports and early childhood child protective services reports), risk behaviors and emotional and behavioral problems at age 16, and demographics. Analysis confirmed a 5-factor model of adolescent neglect (Exposure to Risk, Inadequate Monitoring, Inattention to Basic Needs, Permitting Misbehavior, and Inadequate Support). Inadequate Support and Exposure to Risk were associated with more substances used; Exposure to Risk was also associated with delinquency and suicidality. Adolescent emotional abuse was associated with not using a condom use and internalizing and externalizing problems. Findings underscore the importance of preventing or addressing neglect during adolescence.

The Interaction Effects Between Father-Child Relationship Quality and Parent-perpetrated Maltreatment on Adolescent Behavior Problems.

Despite ample evidence supporting the positive and important role fathers play in youth well-being, currently little is known about the potential buffering effects of positive father-child relationships on adolescent behavioral functioning, especially within the context of child maltreatment. Clarifying whether positive parent-child relationships are helpful in the presence of maltreatment perpetrated by the same or another parent is critical for designing and implementing successful family-based interventions for positive youth development. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the unique and combined effects of the perpetrator of child maltreatment (i.e., maltreatment perpetrated by fathers versus mothers alone) and father-child relationship quality on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. A series of Ordinary Least Squares multiple regressions were conducted on a sample of 14-year-old high-risk youth (N = 661) drawn from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. The results indicated that both father-perpetrated maltreatment and mother-alone maltreatment were associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems. Higher quality of father-child relationships was associated with lower levels of internalizing but was not significantly associated with externalizing problems. Higher quality father-child relationships had a buffering impact against adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems when adolescents were maltreated by mothers alone. The findings suggest that policy and practical efforts seeking to build resilience of youth should strive to nurture and leverage positive, non-maltreating father-child relationships. Such efforts may support the positive development of adolescents, even in the face of mother-perpetrated maltreatment.

The roles of child maltreatment types and peer relationships on behavior problems in early adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Although previous research has established that child maltreatment (CM) and peer relationships (i.e., deviant peer affiliation, being ignored by peers) are strong predictors of adolescent internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) behavior problems, no study has examined the above effects concurrently. Nor have researchers investigated the potential peer relationship differences in the effects of CM types on adolescent behavior problems. Thus, this study aims to examine the independent and combined effects of different types of CM and peer relationships on behavior problems. METHODS: The Generalized Estimating Equations approach was conducted using the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. Child-Protective-Services reports and youth self-reports were used for each type of CM. Deviant peer affiliation (DP) has been assessed using a modified version of the Youth-Risk-Behavior-and-Monitoring-the-Future Survey, while being ignored by peers was assessed using a single question. Adolescent INT and EXT were measured using the Youth-Self-Report. RESULTS: Emotional abuse was associated with both INT and EXT, whereas physical abuse was associated with EXT. Higher DP and higher incidence of being ignored by peers were both associated with higher levels of INT and EXT. Emotionally abused youth with higher levels of DP had less INT, compared to emotionally abused youth with lower levels of DP. CONCLUSION: The Findings indicate the need for interventions that 1) take into account the different effects of CM types, specifically for emotionally abused youth; 2) help youth to build positive relationships with peers; and 3) work to reduce the possibility of affiliation with deviant peers.

Bullying patterns and their associations with child maltreatment and adolescent psychosocial problems.

Introduction: This study aimed 1) to identify underlying heterogeneous patterns of bully-victim; 2) to examine whether the different types of child maltreatment predict the patterns of bully-victim; and 3) to investigate the association between patterns of bully-victim and adolescent psychosocial problems (depression, trouble at school, and substance use). Methods: This study included a sample of 1139 (48.7% girls, 53.4% Black) drawn from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Children's self-reported bullying victimization at age 9 was used using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics Child Development Supplement III. Teacher's reported bullying perpetration at age 9 was used using Social Skills Rating System. Child maltreatment types were assessed at age 5 using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale Coding. At age 15, adolescent depression was measured using modified Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; trouble at school was measured using modified Add Health In-School Questionnaire; and self-reported substance use was used. Results: Latent class analysis produced four classes: bully-victim (19.8%), victim (16.3%), no bully-victim (38.9%), and bully (24.9%). Individuals who have been neglected are more likely to be in the victim class compared to all other classes. Physical abuse to be at heightened risk of involvement in the bully-victim, compared to victim class. Additionally, individuals in the victim group are greater risk for depression, problems at school, and alcohol, as compared to those in the other classes. Conclusions: This study augments the knowledge base on bully/victim, child maltreatment, and behavioral health outcomes and elucidates several suggestions for research and policy.

Prenatal Substance Exposure and Developmental Trajectories of Internalizing Symptoms: Toddlerhood to Preadolescence.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about how prenatal exposure to substances (alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and cocaine) may contribute to heterogeneous childhood trajectories of internalizing symptoms (i.e., depression, withdrawal, anxiety). The present study aimed to identify developmental trajectories of internalizing symptoms in children using gender-separate analyses and to examine whether trajectories differ by prenatal substance exposure (PSE) and other environmental and biological correlates. METHODS: Data from two large community-based birth cohorts with PSE were integrated (N = 1,651, 848 boys, 803 girls): the Cleveland cohort and the Maternal Lifestyle Study (MLS). Internalizing symptoms were assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist at ages 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, and 12 in the Cleveland study and at ages 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 in the MLS. RESULTS: Gender-separate group-based trajectory modeling yielded five distinctive developmental trajectories of internalizing symptoms from ages 2 to 13 in both boys and girls: low-risk group (14.4% girls, 28.8% boys); normative-decreasing group (35.3% girls, 33.1% boys); increasing risk group (14.4% girls, 13.0% boys); early-high group (22.3% girls, 17.9% boys); and chronic group (13.8% girls, 7.2% boys). Prenatal tobacco exposure, maternal psychological distress, and postnatal maternal alcohol use differentiated the longitudinal courses of internalizing symptoms. Boys were more likely to follow the low-risk trajectory, whereas girls were more likely to follow the chronic trajectory. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal tobacco exposure was associated with suboptimal developmental trajectories of internalizing symptoms in the context of prenatal poly-drug exposure, highlighting a need for continued and increased effort toward prevention of prenatal tobacco use.

Longitudinal association between deviant peer affiliation and externalizing behavior problems by types of child maltreatment.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has documented that deviant peer affiliation (DP) and externalizing behavior problems (EXT) are highly related and often co-occur. However, the directionality of the association between DP and EXT remains debatable. In addition, few studies have examined the longitudinal effects of child maltreatment types on co-development of DP and EXT overtime. Therefore, this study examined the role of child maltreatment in predicting the co-development of DP and EXT. METHODS: DP and EXT were assessed at ages 12, 14, and 16. DP was measured using 13 items from the modified version of the Youth Risk Behavior and Monitoring the Future Survey. EXT was measured using the Child Behavior Checklist. Each type of child maltreatment (birth to age 12) was assessed using the CPS substantiated cases. RESULTS: The results indicated that, on average, DP increased over time, whereas EXT decreased over time. In addition, the initial levels of EXT were associated with the slope of DP. Conditional parallel-process latent growth curve modeling identified that physically abused adolescents had higher initial levels of DP and showed a slower increase in DP, while those who had been emotionally abused were associated with a steeper decrease in EXT. CONCLUSION: The findings offer several meaningful implications for practice. First, early assessment of and treatment for EXT may be helpful in preventing DP over time. In addition, practitioners could assess each type of maltreatment to tailor preventive interventions for early onset and ongoing development of DP and EXT.

Peer-relationship patterns and their association with types of child abuse and adolescent risk behaviors among youth at-risk of maltreatment.

INTRODUCTION: This study investigates underlying patterns of peer relationships using diverse concepts (i.e., peer dynamics, peer popularity, and deviant peer affiliation). It also examines whether the patterns of peer relationships differ by type of child abuse, as well as the association between peer relationships and adolescent risk behaviors. METHODS: This study included a sample of 659 youth (328 boys, 331 girls) at-risk of maltreatment, primarily low-income and living in the U.S. Peer dynamics were assessed using five separate components (self-report). Peer popularity was measured using teacher's estimation of child's peer status. Deviant peer affiliation was assessed using a modified version of the Youth Risk Behavior and Monitoring the Future Survey. Each type of abuse was assessed at age 12 using a self-report method. Self-reported adolescent sexual risk behaviors and substance use were assessed at age 16. RESULTS: Latent class analysis identified 4 distinct patterns: 1) Friendly, with prosocial peer groups (10.2%); 2) Socially ignored, with prosocial peer groups (55.2%); 3) Severely antisocial peer groups (6.8%); and 4) Moderately antisocial peer groups (27.8%). Among all types of child abuse, emotionally abused youth were more likely to be involved in severely antisocial peer groups. Additionally, youth in the severely antisocial peer groups were more likely to exhibit adolescent risk behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: These findings argue clearly for the need to gain a deeper understanding of the role played by peer relationships, and of the effect of emotional abuse on the likelihood of membership in severely antisocial peer groups.

Child Maltreatment, Fathers, and Adolescent Alcohol and Marijuana Use Trajectories.

Background: Little is known about heterogeneity in developmental trajectories of alcohol and marijuana use among at-risk youth. Objective: This study aims to examine how child maltreatment and father structural factors at different stages in the life course are associated with different patterns of alcohol and marijuana use trajectories. Methods: A sample of youth (N = 903) were drawn from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). Latent class growth analysis was employed to assess heterogeneity in patterns of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use. In addition, binary logistic regression analysis was performed to examine child maltreatment and father structural factors across different developmental stages as predictors of membership in the identified alcohol and marijuana use trajectory classes. Results: For both alcohol and marijuana use, two distinct latent classes were identified: stable no/low alcohol use (74%) vs. increasing alcohol use (26%); stable no/low marijuana use (85%) vs. increasing marijuana use (15%). Emotional abuse during early childhood and physical abuse during adolescence predicted membership in the increasing alcohol use and the increasing marijuana use classes. The presence of father in the home during early childhood was associated with lower likelihood of being in the increasing alcohol use class. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the importance of understanding the etiology of adolescent substance use through a developmental lens. Screening of exposure to child maltreatment across different developmental stages and interventions promoting father engagement during early childhood might help mitigate the risk of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use.

Profiles of individual assets and mental health symptoms in at-risk early adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies investigated the combined patterns of individual assets (e.g., social competence, positive identity) and mental health symptoms (MHS) in adolescents. This study examined the patterns of early adolescents' individual assets and MHS and whether identified patterns were associated with later adolescents' outcomes. METHODS: Participants were 352 (164 boys, 188 girls) adolescents who were primarily African-American and from low socioeconomic status families, participating in a prospective study of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure from birth in the Midwest United States. Individual assets, using the Developmental Assets Profile, and MHS, using the Youth Self-Report, were assessed at age 12. Substance use, via self-report and biologic assays, early (before age 15) sexual behaviors, and behavioral adjustment were assessed at age 15. RESULTS: Latent profile analysis indicated four distinctive profiles: low assets with elevated MHS (P1, n = 54, 15.3%); adequate assets with thought and social problems (P2, n = 84, 23.9%); low assets without MHS (P3, n = 101, 28.7%); and high assets without MHS (P4, n = 113, 32.1%). Children in the profile with high assets without MHS (P4) were more likely to have a higher IQ and to be in a more optimal environment (higher parental monitoring and less family conflict) than those in other profiles. Although profiles with MHS were associated with adolescent risk behaviors, this relationship was more pronounced for girls than for boys. CONCLUSIONS: Girls in the low assets with elevated MHS (P1) should be a primary concern for preventive intervention. Our study demonstrates the heterogeneity of individual patterns of adaptation and maladaptation.

Vulnerability or resilience to early substance use among adolescents at risk: The roles of maltreatment and father involvement.

Although research has indicated that maltreated children are at higher risk of adolescent substance use, it remains unclear whether the type and timing of maltreatment affect the likelihood of adolescent substance use. Research has also found father involvement to be a potential protective factor against adolescent substance use, but the role of quality vs. quantity of father involvement as well as gender differences in the effects of father involvement on substance use among at-risk adolescents have not been studied. The current study adds value to the existing literature by filling these gaps in knowledge. We conducted a secondary data analysis with a sample of 685 at-risk adolescents drawn from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. The study found a connection between early childhood (birth to 5) physical abuse and adolescent substance use, but not for later childhood physical abuse or other forms of child maltreatment. The quality of father involvement was found to be a protective factor, regardless of child gender; quantity of father involvement was not significant. Based on these findings, development of intervention strategies focusing on prevention of early childhood physical abuse and promoting positive father-child relationships are important prevention strategies for adolescent substance use. Additionally, professionals working with at-risk adolescents need to be cognizant of the implications of early childhood physical abuse and act accordingly to mitigate the increased potential for adolescent substance use.

A pernicious cycle: Finding the pathways from child maltreatment to adolescent peer victimization.

The purpose of this study was to identify the pathways from childhood physical and sexual abuse to adolescent physical and sexual victimization by assessing behavior symptoms (both internalizing and externalizing) and peer popularity as potential mediating variables. The data derive from Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN), which tracks the consequences of child abuse and neglect using five study sites across the US. Child physical and sexual abuse was measured at age 12 using self-reports of life-time maltreatment experiences. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were assessed at age 12 using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Peer popularity was assessed at age 14 by teachers. Peer victimization was assessed at age 16 using the modified version of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. The results indicated that physical abuse had no direct effect on either physical or sexual peer victimization, whereas sexual abuse had significant direct effect on both physical and sexual victimization. Assessed at age 12, children who had been physically or sexually maltreated were found to have higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These increased symptoms are associated with lower peer popularity at age 14, which in turn is associated with greater physical and sexual peer victimization at age 16. The findings suggest that multiple points for interventions may exist to disrupt the cycle of victimization. Early assessment and treatment for externalizing symptoms and for low peer popularity may be helpful in preventing physical peer victimization among adolescents who have been physically and/or sexually abused.

Father Involvement and Behavior Problems among Preadolescents at Risk of Maltreatment.

Although there is a well-established connection between father involvement and children's positive behavioral development in general, this relation has been understudied in more vulnerable and high-risk populations. The aims of this study were to examine how the quantity (i.e., the amount of shared activities) and quality (i.e., perceived quality of the father-child relationship) of father involvement are differently related to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among preadolescents at risk of maltreatment and test if these associations are moderated by father type and child maltreatment. A secondary data analysis was conducted using data from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). Generalized estimating equations analysis was performed on a sample of 499 preadolescents aged 12 years. The results indicated that higher quality of father involvement was associated with lower levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems whereas greater quantity of father involvement was associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The positive association between the quantity of father involvement and behavior problems was stronger in adolescents who were physically abused by their father. The association between father involvement and behavior problems did not differ by the type of father co-residing in the home. The findings suggest that policies and interventions aimed at improving the quality of fathers' relationships and involvement with their children may be helpful in reducing behavior problems in adolescents at risk of maltreatment.

Factor Structure of the Urban Hassles Index.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Urban Hassles Index (UHI). METHODS: Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) were conducted via Principal Axis Factoring extraction method. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to evaluate the fit of the EFA-derived model using the weighted least squares estimator with mean and variance adjustments. Composite/scale scores were created for the extracted factors, with a total score derived by summing the scale scores. Criterion-related validity was examined using hierarchical regressions. RESULTS: The UHI had four first-order factors (Environmental Nuisance, Safety Concerns, Drug, Coercion) accounting for 43% of the total variance. Covariance among the first-order factors was explained by a higher second-order factor. Moderate factor correlations and evidence for the criterion-related validity of the subscales and total score indicated multidimensionality of the UHI. CONCLUSIONS: The shortened 16-item UHI is a brief assessment tool evaluating stressors unique to urban adolescents, providing specific intervention targets.

Developmental Pathways from Child Maltreatment to Adolescent Substance Use: The Roles of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Mother-Child Relationships.

While many studies have identified a significant relation between child maltreatment and adolescent substance use, the developmental pathways linking this relation remain sparsely explored. The current study examines posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, mother-child relationships, and internalizing and externalizing problems as potential longitudinal pathways through which child maltreatment influences adolescent substance use. Structural equation modeling was conducted on 883 adolescents drawn from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). The pathways of PTS symptoms linked physical and sexual abuse to substance use, and the pathways of mother-child relationships linked emotional abuse and neglect to substance use. None of the four types of maltreatment affected substance use via internalizing or externalizing problems. The findings suggest that intervention efforts aimed at addressing posttraumatic stress symptoms and improving mother-child relationship quality may be beneficial in reducing substance use among adolescents with child maltreatment histories.