Mutations in PB1, NP, HA, and NA Contribute to Increased Virus Fitness of H5N2 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Clade 2.3.4.4 in Chickens.

The H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) clade 2.3.4.4 virus spread to North America by wild birds and reassorted to generate the H5N2 HPAI virus that caused the poultry outbreak in the United States in 2015. In previous studies, we showed that H5N2 viruses isolated from poultry in the later stages of the outbreak had higher infectivity and transmissibility in chickens than the wild bird index H5N2 virus. Here, we determined the genetic changes that contributed to the difference in host virus fitness by analyzing sequence data from all of the viruses detected during the H5N2 outbreak, and studying the pathogenicity of reassortant viruses generated with the index wild bird virus and a chicken virus from later in the outbreak. Viruses with the wild bird virus backbone and either PB1, NP, or the entire polymerase complex of the chicken isolate, caused higher and earlier mortality in chickens, with three mutations (PB1 E180D, M317V, and NP I109T) identified to increase polymerase activity in chicken cells. The reassortant virus with the HA and NA from the chicken virus, where mutations in functionally known gene regions were acquired as the virus circulated in turkeys (HA S141P and NA S416G) and later in chickens (HA M66I, L322Q), showed faster virus growth, bigger plaque size and enhanced heat persistence in vitro, and increased pathogenicity and transmissibility in chickens. Collectively, these findings demonstrate an evolutionary pathway in which a HPAI virus from wild birds can accumulate genetic changes to increase fitness in poultry.IMPORTANCE H5Nx highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of the A/goose/Guangdong/1/96 lineage continue to circulate widely affecting both poultry and wild birds. These viruses continue to change and reassort, which affects their fitness to different avian hosts. In this study, we defined mutations associated with increased virus fitness in chickens as the clade 2.3.4.4. H5N2 HPAI virus circulated in different avian species. We identified mutations in the PB1, NP, HA, and NA virus proteins that were highly conserved in the poultry isolates and contributed to the adaptation of this virus in chickens. This knowledge is important for understanding the epidemiology of H5Nx HPAI viruses and specifically the changes related to adaptation of these viruses in poultry.

Live bird markets as evolutionary epicentres of H9N2 low pathogenicity avian influenza viruses in Korea.

Live bird markets (LBMs) in Korea have been recognized as a reservoir, amplifier, and source of avian influenza viruses (AIVs); however, little was known about the role of LBMs in the epidemiology of AIVs in Korea until recently. Through 10 years of surveillance (2006-2016) we have isolated and sequenced H9N2 viruses in Korean LBMs. To understand how H9N2 evolves and spreads in Korea, a statistical Bayesian phylogenetic model was used. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that three separate introductions of progenitor gene pools, Korean domestic duck-origin and two wild aquatic bird-origin AIVs, contributed to the generation of the five genotypes of H9N2 viruses in Korea. Phylogenetic reconstruction of ecological states infer that the LBMs are where chickens become infected with the virus, with domestic ducks playing a major role in the transmission and evolution of the H9N2 viruses. Three increases in the genetic diversity of H9N2 viruses were observed and coincided with transitions in host species and the locations (domestic farm, LBM, slaughterhouse, and wild aquatic bird habitat) where the viruses were isolated, accompanying genetic reassortment. Following the introduction of a wild aquatic bird-origin AIVs in 2008, six genes of the Korean lineage H9N2 virus were replaced with genes originating from wild aquatic birds, and viruses with this new genotype became predominant in Korean LBMs.

Pathogenicity and genomic changes of a 2016 European H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (clade 2.3.4.4) in experimentally infected mallards and chickens.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N8 clade 2.3.4.4 virus caused outbreaks in poultry and unusually high mortality in wild birds in 2016-2017. The pathobiology of one of these viruses was examined in mallards and chickens. High mortality and transmission to direct contacts were observed in mallards inoculated with medium and high doses of the virus. However, in chickens, high mortality occurred only when birds are given the high virus dose and no transmission was observed, indicating that the virus was better adapted to mallards. In comparison with the virus inoculum, viral sequences obtained from the chickens had a higher number of nucleotide changes but lower intra-host genomic diversity than viral sequences obtained from the mallards. These observations are consistent with population bottlenecks occurring when viruses infect and replicate in a host that it is not well adapted to. Whether these observations apply to influenza viruses in general remains to be determined.

Loss of Fitness of Mexican H7N3 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus in Mallards after Circulating in Chickens.

Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus subtype H7N3 have been occurring in commercial chickens in Mexico since its first introduction in 2012. In order to determine changes in virus pathogenicity and adaptation in avian species, three H7N3 HPAI viruses from 2012, 2015, and 2016 were evaluated in chickens and mallards. All three viruses caused high mortality in chickens when given at medium to high doses and replicated similarly. No mortality or clinical signs and similar infectivity were observed in mallards inoculated with the 2012 and 2016 viruses. However, the 2012 H7N3 HPAI virus replicated well in mallards and transmitted to contacts, whereas the 2016 virus replicated poorly and did not transmit to contacts, which indicates that the 2016 virus is less adapted to mallards. In vitro, the 2016 virus grew slower and to lower titers than did the 2012 virus in duck fibroblast cells. Full-genome sequencing showed 115 amino acid differences between the 2012 and the 2016 viruses, with some of these changes previously associated with changes in replication in avian species, including hemagglutinin (HA) A125T, nucleoprotein (NP) M105V, and NP S377N. In conclusion, as the Mexican H7N3 HPAI virus has passaged through large populations of chickens in a span of several years and has retained its high pathogenicity for chickens, it has decreased in fitness in mallards, which could limit the potential spread of this HPAI virus by waterfowl.IMPORTANCE Not much is known about changes in host adaptation of avian influenza (AI) viruses in birds after long-term circulation in chickens or other terrestrial poultry. Although the origin of AI viruses affecting poultry is wild aquatic birds, the role of these birds in further dispersal of poultry-adapted AI viruses is not clear. Previously, we showed that HPAI viruses isolated early from poultry outbreaks could still infect and transmit well in mallards. In this study, we demonstrate that the Mexican H7N3 HPAI virus after four years of circulation in chickens replicates poorly and does not transmit in mallards but remains highly pathogenic in chickens. This information on changes in host adaptation is important for understanding the epidemiology of AI viruses and the role that wild waterfowl may play in disseminating viruses adapted to terrestrial poultry.