Versatile chondroitin sulfate-based nanoplatform for chemo-photodynamic therapy against triple-negative breast cancer.

Versatile nanoplatform equipped with chemo-photodynamic therapeutic attributes play an important role in improving the effectiveness of tumor treatments. Herein, we developed multifunctional nanoparticles based on chondroitin sulfate A (CSA) for the targeted delivery of chlorin e6 (Ce6) and doxorubicin (DOX), in a combined chemo-photodynamic therapy against triple-negative breast cancer. CSA was chosen for its hydrophilic properties and its affinity to CD44 receptor-overexpressed tumor cells. The CSA-ss-Ce6 (CSSC) conjugate was synthesized utilizing a disulfide linker. Subsequently, DOX-loaded CSSC (CSSC-D) nanoparticles were fabricated, showcasing a nearly spherical shape with an average particle size of 267 nm. In the CSSC-D nanoparticles, the chemically attached Ce6 constituted 1.53 %, while the physically encapsulated DOX accounted for 8.11 %. Both CSSC-D and CSSC nanoparticles demonstrated a reduction-sensitive release of DOX or Ce6 in vitro. Under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, CSSC-D showed the enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), improving cytotoxic effects against triple-negative breast cancer 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Remarkably, the CSSC-D with NIR exhibited the most potent tumor growth inhibition in comparison to other groups in the 4T1-bearing Balb/c mice model. Overall, this CSSC-D nanoplatform shows significant promise as a powerful tool for a synergetic approach in chemo-photodynamic therapy in triple-negative breast cancer.

Innovative gelatin-based micelles with AS1411 aptamer targeting and reduction responsiveness for doxorubicin delivery in tumor therapy.

Herein, we constructed innovative reduction-sensitive and targeted gelatin-based micelles for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery in tumor therapy. AS1411 aptamer-modified gelatin-ss-tocopherol succinate (AGSST) and the control GSST without AS1411 modification were synthesized and characterized. Antitumor drug DOX-containing AGSST (AGSST-D) and GSST-D nanoparticles were prepared, and their shapes were almost spherical. Reduction-responsive characteristics of DOX release in vitro were revealed in AGSST-D and GSST-D. Compared with non-targeted GSST-D, AGSST-D demonstrated better intracellular uptake and stronger cytotoxicity against nucleolin-overexpressed A549 cells. Importantly, AGSST-D micelles showed more effective killing activity in A549-bearing mice than GSST-D and DOX⋅HCl. It was revealed that AGSST-D micelles had no obvious systemic toxicity. Overall, AGSST micelles would have the potential to be an effective drug carrier for targeted tumor therapy.

Layered double hydroxides - poloxamer 188 nanocomposites based on exfoliation reassembling for improved cellular uptake and controlled delivery of methotrexate.

Exploitation of advanced methotrexate (MTX) delivery with nanocomposites has important clinical application value. Poloxamer 188 micelle and layered double hydroxide loaded with MTX (LDH-MTX) by exfoliation reassembling were used to prepare LDH-MTX-poloxamer 188 nanocomposites with good dispersibility and efficient cellular uptake for controlled drug delivery. The LDH-MTX-poloxamer 188 nanocomposites with sphere-like morphology, of which the average hydrodynamic diameter was <100 nm, were shown to have better dispersion state than naked LDH-MTX. Importantly, the LDH-MTX-poloxamer 188 nanocomposites could achieve significant sustained drug release and have obvious pH dependent responsive release ability. In addition, these nanocomposites also exhibited long-term and excellent in vitro antitumor efficacy as opposed to pure MTX or LDH-MTX as evident from cell viability. More interestingly, compared to pure FITC used to simulate MTX, LDH nanocomposites labeled with FITC were considered to have better cell adhesion through cell uptake. Therefore, the studied nanocomposites of LDH-MTX-poloxamer 188 can be further used as a new advanced MTX delivery nanovehicles with desired properties in future therapeutic aspects.

Peptide-modified bioresponsive chondroitin sulfate micelles for targeted doxorubicin delivery in triple-negative breast cancer.

Triple-negative breast cancer is an offensive tumor that is highly challenging to cure. In this study, we developed novel polymeric nanoparticles that target dual receptors and respond to reducing conditions for chemotherapeutic drug release in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer. Then we synthesized and characterized a targeted peptide-grafted chondroitin sulfate A-ss-deoxycholic acid (TCSSD) copolymer and prepare doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded TCSSD (TCSSD-D) micelles high-loading content. The bioresponsive drug release of TCSSD-D nanoparticles was demonstrated in a glutathione-containing phosphate buffer solution. We found that TCSSD-D effectively targeted CD44 and P-selectin receptors both in vitro and in vivo. TCSSD-D micelles were higher cytotoxicity and cellular uptake than unmodified DOX-containing micelles in MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, TCSSD-D micelles showed the strongest suppression of tumor growth among three DOX-based formulations in triple-negative MDA-MB-231-bearing nude mice. These results suggest that amphiphilic TCSSD nanoparticles can serve as a targeted and intelligent delivery vehicle for triple-negative breast cancer therapy.

In-Depth Excavation and Screening of Triterpene Saponins From the Rhizome of Panax japonicus Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Electrospray Ionization and Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry.

The rhizome of Panax japonicus (RPJ) has been used for thousands of years in west China. Triterpene saponins (TSs) were considered to be the main pharmacologically bioactive ingredients in RPJ. However, it is difficult and time-consuming to profile and identify them according to the traditional phytochemical methods. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS) was used for chemical identification of TSs from the extract of RPJ in negative ion mode. Their chemical structures were tentatively elucidated based on exact formulas, fragmentation patterns and literature data. In all, 42 TSs were discovered and tentatively characterized in RPJ, of which 12 TSs were identified as potential new compounds according to their molecular mass, fragmentation pattern and chromatographic behavior. The results demonstrated that the developed HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS method was conducive to the discovery of the active ingredients of RPJ and the establishment of quality standards.

Peptide-based Self-assembly: Design, Bioactive Properties, and Its Applications.

The self-assembly of peptides is very popular in biomedical fields. Peptide-based assemblies have been used as an ideal candidate for drug/gene delivery, tissue engineering, and antibacterial/anticancer agents. The morphology and structure of peptide self-assembly can be changed by altering the molecular structure and the self-assembly conditions. Engineering peptide assemblies present great potential in medical fields. In this review, the structure and function of peptide self-assembly have been described. Also, the advances in peptide- based self-assembly have been highlighted in biomedical applications, such as drug packaging and delivery, tissue engineering, antibacterial agents, siRNA-targeted delivery and vaccines. Moreover, the challenges and future perspectives of the self-assembly of polypeptides are discussed.

Smart Chondroitin Sulfate Micelles for Effective Targeted Delivery of Doxorubicin Against Breast Cancer Metastasis.

Introduction: Metastasis is a major challenge in breast cancer therapy. The successful chemotherapy of breast cancer largely depends on the ability to block the metastatic process. Herein, we designed a dual-targeting and stimuli-responsive drug delivery system for targeted drug delivery against breast cancer metastasis. Methods: AS1411 aptamer-modified chondroitin sulfate A-ss-deoxycholic acid (ACSSD) was synthesized, and the unmodified CSSD was used as the control. Chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX)-containing ACSSD (D-ACSSD) micelles were prepared by a dialysis method. The ACSSD conjugate was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vitro cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of D-ACSSD micelles were studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and MTT assay in breast tumor cells. The inhibition capability of D-ACSSD micelles in cell migration and invasion was carried out in 4T1 cells. In vivo antitumor activity of DOX-containing micelles was investigated in metastatic 4T1-bearing Balb/c mice. Results: D-ACSSD and DOX-loaded CSSD (D-CSSD) micelles exhibited high drug encapsulation content and reduction-responsive characteristics. D-ACSSD micelles were spherical in shape. Compared with D-CSSD, D-ACSSD showed higher cellular uptake and more potent killing activity in 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, D-ACSSD exhibited stronger inhibitory effects on the invasion and migration of highly metastatic 4T1 cells than unmodified D-CSSD. Among the DOX-containing formulations, D-ACSSD micelles presented the most effective inhibition of tumor growth and lung metastasis in orthotopic 4T1-bearing mice in vivo. It also revealed that ACSSD micelles did not exhibit obvious systemic toxicity. Conclusion: The smart D-ACSSD micelles could be a promising delivery system for the therapy of metastatic breast cancer.

Multifunctional Nanoparticles Codelivering Doxorubicin and Amorphous Calcium Carbonate Preloaded with Indocyanine Green for Enhanced Chemo-Photothermal Cancer Therapy.

Background: Multifunctional stimuli-responsive nanoparticles with photothermal-chemotherapy provided a powerful tool for improving the accuracy and efficiency in the treatment of malignant tumors. Methods: Herein, photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded amorphous calcium-carbonate (ICG@) nanoparticle was prepared by a gas diffusion reaction. Doxorubicin (DOX) and ICG@ were simultaneously encapsulated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-ss-chondroitin sulfate A (PSC) nanoparticles by a film hydration method. The obtained PSC/ICG@+DOX hybrid nanoparticles were characterized and evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles were analyzed by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and MTT assay in 4T1 cells. In vivo antitumor activity of the nanoparticles was evaluated in 4T1-bearing Balb/c mice. Results: PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles were nearly spherical in shape by TEM observation, and the diameter was 407 nm determined by DLS. Owing to calcium carbonate and disulfide bond linked copolymer, PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles exhibited pH and reduction-sensitive drug release. Further, PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles showed an effective photothermal effect under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, and improved cellular uptake and cytotoxicity in breast cancer 4T1 cells. Importantly, PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles demonstrated the most effective suppression of tumor growth in orthotopic 4T1-bearing mice among the treatment groups. In contrast with single chemotherapy or photothermal therapy, chemo-photothermal treatment by PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles synergistically inhibited the growth of 4T1 cells. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that PSC/ICG@+DOX nanoparticles with active targeting and stimuli-sensitivity would be a promising strategy to enhance chemo-photothermal cancer therapy.

Preparation and evaluation of reduction-responsive micelles based on disulfide-linked chondroitin sulfate A-tocopherol succinate for controlled antitumour drug release.

OBJECTIVES: The study was to construct reduction-responsive chondroitin sulfate A (CSA)-conjugated TOS (CST) micelles with disulfide bond linkage, which was used for controlled doxorubicin (DOX) release and improved drug efficacy in vivo. METHODS: CST and non-responsive CSA-conjugated TOS (CAT) were synthesized, and the chemical structure was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectrophotometer and dynamic light scattering. Antitumour drug DOX was physically encapsulated into CST and CSA by dialysis method. Cell uptake of DOX-based formulations was investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. In vitro cytotoxicity was studied in A549 and AGS cells. Furthermore, antitumour activity was evaluated in A549-bearing mice. KEY FINDINGS: CST and CAT can form self-assembled micelles, and have low value of critical micelle concentration. Notably, DOX-containing CST (D-CST) micelles demonstrated reduction-triggered drug release in glutathione-containing media. Further, reduction-responsive uptake of D-CST was observed in A549 cells. In addition, D-CST induced stronger cytotoxicity (P < 0.05) than DOX-loaded CAT (D-CAT) against A549 and AGS cells. Moreover, D-CST exhibited significantly stronger antitumour activity in A549-bearing nude mice than doxorubicin hydrochloride and D-CAT. CONCLUSIONS: The reduction-responsive CST micelles enhanced the DOX effect at tumour site and controlled drug release.

Self-assembled nanoparticles of reduction-sensitive poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)-conjugated chondroitin sulfate A for doxorubicin delivery: preparation, characterization and evaluation.

In this study, reduction-sensitive self-assembled polymer nanoparticles based on poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and chondroitin sulfate A (CSA) were developed and characterized. PLGA was conjugated with CSA via a disulfide linkage (PLGA-ss-CSA). The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of PLGA-ss-CSA conjugate is 3.5 µg/mL. The anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) was chosen as a model drug, and was effectively encapsulated into the nanoparticles (PLGA-ss-CSA/DOX) with high loading efficiency of 15.1%. The cumulative release of DOX from reduction-sensitive nanoparticles was only 34.8% over 96 h in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4). However, in the presence of 20 mM glutathione-containing PBS environment, DOX release was notably accelerated and almost complete from the reduction-sensitive nanoparticles up to 96 h. Moreover, efficient intracellular DOX release of PLGA-ss-CSA/DOX nanoparticles was confirmed by CLSM assay in A549 cells. In vitro cytotoxicity study showed that the half inhibitory concentrations of PLGA-ss-CSA/DOX nanoparticles and free DOX against A549 cells were 1.141 and 1.825 µg/mL, respectively. Therefore, PLGA-ss-CSA/DOX nanoparticles enhanced the cytotoxicity of DOX in vitro. These results suggested that PLGA-ss-CSA nanoparticles could be a promising carrier for drug delivery.

Development of PSMA-targeted and core-crosslinked glycol chitosan micelles for docetaxel delivery in prostate cancer therapy.

In this study, prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted and core-crosslinked micelles were developed based on prostate cancer-binding peptide (PCP) modified glycol chitosan-lipoic acid (PGC-LA) conjugate. The degree of substitution was 5.2 PCP groups and 10.7 lipoic acid groups per 100 sugar residues of glycol chitosan in PGC-LA copolymer. Docetaxel (DTX) was chosen as a model anti-tumor drug. The DTX-loaded micelles were prepared by an o/w method, and core-crosslinked micelles were further constructed by using a catalytic amount of dithiothreitol. The mean diameter of DTX-loaded core-crosslinked PGC-LA (DTX-PGC-LA/cc) micelles was 397 nm determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). In vitro DTX released from core-crosslinked micelles was slower than that from non-crosslinked counterpart. Blank micelles exhibited good biocompatibility. Additionally, cellular uptake and cytotoxcity of PCP-modified micelles were higher than those of micelles without PCP in PSMA-positive LNCaP cells. Importantly, DTX-PGC-LA/cc demonstrated the stronger anti-tumor efficacy against LNCaP tumor xenograft models than DTX injection and other DTX-loaded micelles. Taken together, this study provides a potential way in developing actively targeted and core-crosslinked micelles for hydrophobic drug delivery in cancer therapy.

Reduction-sensitive micelles self-assembled from amphiphilic chondroitin sulfate A-deoxycholic acid conjugate for triggered release of doxorubicin.

Reduction-sensitive chondroitin sulfate A (CSA)-based micelles were developed. CSA was conjugated with deoxycholic acid (DOCA) via a disulfide linkage. The bioreducible conjugate (CSA-ss-DOCA) can form self-assembled micelles in aqueous medium. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of CSA-ss-DOCA conjugate is 0.047mg/mL, and its mean diameter is 387nm. The anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) was chosen as a model drug, and was effectively encapsulated into the micelles with high loading efficiency. Reduction-sensitive micelles and reduction-insensitive control micelles displayed similar DOX release behavior in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH7.4). Notably, DOX release from the reduction-sensitive micelles in vitro was accelerated in the presence of 20mM glutathione-containing PBS environment. Moreover, DOX-loaded CSA-ss-DOCA (CSA-ss-DOCA/DOX) micelles exhibited intracellular reduction-responsive characteristics in human gastric cancer HGC-27 cells determined by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Furthermore, CSA-ss-DOCA/DOX micelles demonstrated higher antitumor efficacy than reduction-insensitive control micelles in HGC-27 cells. These results suggested that reduction-sensitive CSA-ss-DOCA micelles had the potential as intracellular targeted carriers of anticancer drugs.

Self-aggregated nanoparticles of linoleic acid-modified glycol chitosan conjugate as delivery vehicles for paclitaxel: preparation, characterization and evaluation.

A series of linoleic acid-modified glycol chitosan (LAGC) conjugates were synthesized and characterized by FTIR and (1)H NMR. The effect of the amount of linoleic acid (LA) on the physicochemical properties of LAGC conjugates was investigated. The mean diameters of three LAGC nanoparticles determined by dynamic light scattering ranged from 204 to 289 nm. The critical aggregation concentration values of LAGC conjugates in aqueous solution were 0.0148, 0.0348, and 0.0807 mg/ml, respectively. Paclitaxel (PTX) was physically loaded into the LAGC nanoparticles by a dialysis method. The drug loading content and encapsulation efficiency of PTX-loaded LAGC (PTX-LAGC) nanoparticles increased with an increasing ratio of the hydrophobic LA to hydrophilic glycol chitosan in the conjugates. PTX-LAGC nanoparticles were almost spherical in shape observed by transmission electron microscopy. In vitro release revealed that PTX release from the nanoparticles was reduced as the LA substitution degree of LAGC conjugates increased. Compared with the commercial formulation Taxol, PTX-LAGC-1 nanoparticles exhibited comparable cellular uptake and cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells in vitro. Importantly, PTX-LAGC-1 nanoparticles demonstrated the stronger antitumor efficacy against hepatic H22 tumor-bearing mice than Taxol (p < 0.05). Therefore, glycolipid-like LAGC nanoparticles had a potential as delivery vehicles for tumor therapy.

Preparation, Characterization and Evaluation of α-Tocopherol Succinate-Modified Dextran Micelles as Potential Drug Carriers.

In the present study, α-tocopherol succinate (TOS) conjugated dextran (Dex-TOS) was synthesized and characterized by fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and fluorescence spectroscopy. Dex-TOS could form nanoscaled micelles in aqueous medium. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) is 0.0034 mg/mL. Doxorubicin (Dox) was selected as a model drug. Dox-loaded Dex-TOS (Dex-TOS/Dox) micelles were prepared by a dialysis method. The size of Dex-TOS/Dox micelles increased from 295 to 325 nm with the Dox-loading content increasing from 4.21% to 8.12%. The Dex-TOS/Dox micelles were almost spherical in shape, as determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vitro release demonstrated that Dox release from the micelles was in a sustained manner for up to 96 h. The cellular uptake of Dex-TOS/Dox micelles in human nasopharyngeal epidermoid carcinoma (KB) cells is an endocytic process determined by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Moreover, Dex-TOS/Dox micelles exhibited comparable cytotoxicity in contrast with doxorubicin hydrochloride. These results suggested that Dex-TOS micelles could be a promising carrier for drug delivery.

Correction: Preparation, Characterization and Evaluation of α-Tocopherol Succinate-Modified Dextran Micelles as Potential Drug Carriers. Materials 2015, 8, 6685-6696.

The authors wish to make the following correction to their paper [1]. [...].

[Progress in the study of core-crosslinked polymeric micelles in drug delivery system].

The core-crosslinked polymeric micelles were used as a new drug delivery system, which can decrease the premature drug release in blood circulation, improve the stability of the micelles, and effectively transport the drug into the therapy sites. Then the drug bioavailability increased further, while the side effect reduced. Most drugs were physically entrapped or chemically covalent with the polymer in the internals of micelles. Based on the various constitutions and properties of polymeric micelles as well as the special characteristics of body microenvironment, the environment-responsive or active targeting core-crosslinked micelles were designed and prepared. As a result, the drug controlled release behavior was obtained. In the present paper, the research progress of all kinds of core-crosslinked micelles which were published in recent years is introduced. Moreover, the characteristic and application prospect of these micelles in drug delivery system are analyzed and summarized.

Preparation and characterization of galactosylated glycol chitosan micelles and its potential use for hepatoma-targeting delivery of doxorubicin.

This study aimed to develop novel galactosylated cholesterol modified-glycol chitosan (Gal-CHGC) micelles for targeting delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) in live cancer cells. Three kinds of Gal-CHGC conjugates were synthesized and characterized. The mean particle size and critical aggregation concentration of these polymeric micelles increased with the increase of galactose substitution degree. The DOX-loaded micelles were prepared by an o/w method. The mean diameters of DOX-loaded galactosylated micelles were in the range of 387-497 nm. DOX released from drug-loaded micelles displayed a biphasic way. Cellular uptake studies demonstrated that DOX-loaded galactosylated micelles could enhance the uptake of DOX into HepG2 cells. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of DOX-loaded galactosylated micelles against HepG2 cells significantly improved in contrast with free DOX and DOX-loaded micelles without galactosylation. These results suggested that Gal-CHGC micelles could be a potential carrier for hepatoma-targeting drug delivery.

Development of dual ligand-targeted polymeric micelles as drug carriers for cancer therapy in vitro and in vivo.

Chemotherapy is a major therapeutic approach for cancer patients. The action sites of cancer drugs are intracellular compartments including cytoplasm or nucleus. However, targeting drug delivery into the nucleus of specific tumor cells remains a challenging task. Herein, we developed dual-decorated polymeric micelles with folic acid (FA) and a nuclear localization signal (NLS) for specific tumor-targeted drug delivery. Cholesterol-modified glycol chitosan (CHGC) was synthesized. NLS and FA conjugated CHGC (NFCHGC) micelles were constructed. Doxorubicin (DOX) was chosen as a model anticancer drug and coumarin 6 (C6) was used as a hydrophobic fluorescence probe. The drug-loaded polymeric micelles were prepared and characterized. C6-loaded NFCHGC (C6/NFCHGC) showed efficient intracellular trafficking including endosomal/lysosomal escape and nucleus transportation in folate receptor (FR)-positive KB cells investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). DOX-loaded NFCHGC (DOX/NFCHGC) exhibited stronger cytotoxicity against KB cells than other DOX formulations. Furthermore, blank polymeric micelles displayed low toxicity and good biocompatibility in vivo. DOX/NFCHGC micelles had the strongest anti-tumor efficacy against KB tumor xenograft models in vivo. These findings demonstrated that NFCHGC micelles were deemed as a potential drug nanocarrier for cancer therapy, especially used in FR-positive tumor cells and nucleus-targeting delivery.

Insulin protects apoptotic cardiomyocytes from hypoxia/reoxygenation injury through the sphingosine kinase/sphingosine 1-phosphate axis.

OBJECTIVE: Experimental and clinical studies have shown that administration of insulin during reperfusion is cardioprotective, but the mechanisms underlying this effect are still unknown. In this study, the ability of insulin to protect apoptotic cardiomyocytes from hypoxia/reoxygenation injury using the sphingosine kinase/sphingosine 1-phosphate axis was investigated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Rat cardiomyocytes were isolated and subjected to hypoxia and reoxygenation. [γ-32P] ATP was used to assess sphingosine kinase activity. Insulin was found to increase sphingosine kinase activity. Immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis showed changes in the subcellular location of sphingosine kinase 1 from cytosol to the membrane in cardiomyocytes. Insulin caused cardiomyocytes to accumulate of S1P in a dose-dependent manner. FRET efficiency showed that insulin also transactivates the S1P1 receptor. TUNEL staining showed that administration of insulin during reoxygenation could to reduce the rate of reoxygenation-induced apoptosis, which is a requirement for SphK 1 activity. It also reduced the rate of activation of the S1P receptor and inhibited hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced cell death in cardiomyocytes. CONCLUSION: The sphingosine kinase 1/sphingosine 1-phosphate/S1P receptor axis is one pathway through which insulin protects rat cardiomyocytes from apoptosis induced by hypoxia/reoxygenation injury.

Folic acid conjugated glycol chitosan micelles for targeted delivery of doxorubicin: preparation and preliminary evaluation in vitro.

For folate receptor (FR) targeted anticancer therapy, novel folic acid (FA) conjugated cholesterol-modified glycol chitosan (FCHGC) micelles were synthesized and characterized by (1)H NMR, dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The degree of substitution was 1.4 FA groups and 7.7 cholesterol groups per 100 sugar residues of glycol chitosan. The critical aggregation concentration of FCHGC micelles in aqueous solution was 0.0169 mg/ml. The doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded FCHGC (DFCHGC) micelles were prepared by an emulsion/solvent evaporation method. The DFCHGC micelles were almost spherical in shape and their size increased from 282 to 320 nm with the DOX-loading content increasing from 4.53 to 11.4%. DOX released from DOX-loaded micelles displayed sustained release behavior. The targeted micelles encapsulated DOX showed significantly greater cytotoxicity against FR-positive HeLa cells than the nontargeted DOX-loaded micelles and free DOX. These results suggested that FCHGC micelles could be a potential carrier for targeted drug delivery.