ABSTRACT
Insect gustatory receptors play roles in sensing tastants, such as sugars and bitter substances. We previously demonstrated that the BmGr9 silkworm gustatory receptor is a d-fructose-gated ion channel receptor. However, the molecular mechanism of how d-fructose could initiate channel opening were unclear. Herein, we present a structural model for a channel pore and a d-fructose-binding site in BmGr9. Since the membrane topology and oligomeric state of BmGr9 appeared to be similar to those of an insect odorant receptor coreceptor, Orco, we constructed a structural model of BmGr9 based on the cryo-EM Orco structure. Our site-directed mutagenesis data suggested that the transmembrane region 7 forms channel pore and controls channel gating. This model also suggested that a pocket formed by transmembrane helices 2 to 4 and 6 binds d-fructose. Using mutagenesis experiments in combination with docking simulations, we were able to determine the potent binding mode of d-fructose. Finally, based on these data, we propose a conformational change that leads to channel opening upon d-fructose binding. Taken together, these findings detail the molecular mechanism by which an insect gustatory receptor can be activated by its ligand molecule.
Subject(s)
Drosophila Proteins , Receptors, Odorant , Animals , Ligands , Receptors, Odorant/metabolism , Drosophila Proteins/genetics , Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics , Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism , Insecta/metabolism , Fructose/metabolism , Models, StructuralABSTRACT
Sleep is an ancient animal behavior that is regulated similarly in species ranging from flies to humans. Various genes that regulate sleep have been identified in invertebrates, but whether the functions of these genes are conserved in mammals remains poorly explored. Drosophila insomniac (inc) mutants exhibit severely shortened and fragmented sleep. Inc protein physically associates with the Cullin-3 (Cul3) ubiquitin ligase, and neuronal depletion of Inc or Cul3 strongly curtails sleep, suggesting that Inc is a Cul3 adaptor that directs the ubiquitination of neuronal substrates that impact sleep. Three proteins similar to Inc exist in vertebrates-KCTD2, KCTD5, and KCTD17-but are uncharacterized within the nervous system and their functional conservation with Inc has not been addressed. Here we show that Inc and its mouse orthologs exhibit striking biochemical and functional interchangeability within Cul3 complexes. Remarkably, KCTD2 and KCTD5 restore sleep to inc mutants, indicating that they can substitute for Inc in vivo and engage its neuronal targets relevant to sleep. Inc and its orthologs localize similarly within fly and mammalian neurons and can traffic to synapses, suggesting that their substrates may include synaptic proteins. Consistent with such a mechanism, inc mutants exhibit defects in synaptic structure and physiology, indicating that Inc is essential for both sleep and synaptic function. Our findings reveal that molecular functions of Inc are conserved through ~600 million years of evolution and support the hypothesis that Inc and its orthologs participate in an evolutionarily conserved ubiquitination pathway that links synaptic function and sleep regulation.
Subject(s)
Drosophila Proteins/genetics , Drosophila/genetics , Sleep/genetics , Synapses/metabolism , Animals , Conserved Sequence , Cullin Proteins/genetics , Cullin Proteins/metabolism , Drosophila/metabolism , Drosophila/physiology , Drosophila Proteins/chemistry , Drosophila Proteins/metabolism , Evolution, Molecular , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Potassium Channels/chemistry , Potassium Channels/genetics , Potassium Channels/metabolism , Protein Transport , Synapses/physiologyABSTRACT
Aggression is a prevalent behavior in the animal kingdom that is used to settle competition for limited resources. Given the high risk associated with fighting, the central nervous system has evolved an active mechanism to modulate its expression. Lesioning the lateral septum (LS) is known to cause "septal rage," a phenotype characterized by a dramatic increase in the frequency of attacks. To understand the circuit mechanism of LS-mediated modulation of aggression, we examined the influence of LS input on the cells in and around the ventrolateral part of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl)-a region required for male mouse aggression. We found that the inputs from the LS inhibited the attack-excited cells but surprisingly increased the overall activity of attack-inhibited cells. Furthermore, optogenetic activation of the projection from LS cells to the VMHvl terminated ongoing attacks immediately but had little effect on mounting. Thus, LS projection to the ventromedial hypothalamic area represents an effective pathway for suppressing male aggression.
