On the enigma of Palaenigma wrangeli (Schmidt), a conulariid with a partly non-mineralized skeleton.

Palaenigma wrangeli (Schmidt) is a finger-sized fossil with a tetraradiate conical skeleton; it occurs as a rare component in fossiliferous Upper Ordovician strata of the eastern Baltic Basin and is known exclusively from north Estonia. The systematic affinities and palaeoecology of P. wrangeli remained questionable. Here, the available specimens of P. wrangeli have been reexamined using scanning electron microscopy and x-ray computed tomography (microCT). Additionally, the elemental composition of the skeletal elements has been checked using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The resulting 2D-, and 3D-scans reveal that P. wrangeli consists of an alternation of distinct calcium phosphate (apatite) lamellae and originally organic-rich inter-layers. The lamellae form four semicircular marginal pillars, which are connected by irregularly spaced transverse diaphragms. Marginally, the diaphragms and pillar lamellae are not connected to each other and thus do not form a closed periderm structure. A non-mineralized or poorly mineralized external periderm existed originally in P. wrangeli but is only rarely and fragmentary preserved. P. wrangeli often co-occurs with conulariids in fossil-rich limestone with mudstone-wackestone lithologies. Based on the new data, P. wrangeli can be best interpreted as a poorly mineralized conulariinid from an original soft bottom habitat. Here the new conulariinid family Palaenigmaidae fam. nov. is proposed as the monotypic taxon for P. wrangeli.

Assessment of serpulid-hydroid association through the Jurassic: A case study from the Polish Basin.

The coexistence of sessile, tube-dwelling polychaetes (serpulids) and hydroids, has been investigated. Serpulid tubes bearing traces after hydroids are derived from different stratigraphic intervals spanning the Middle and Upper Jurassic, the rocks of which represent the diverse paleoenvironments of the Polish Basin. Although fossil colonial hydroids classified under the species Protulophila gestroi are a commonly occurring symbiont of these polychaetes during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic, they seem to be significantly less frequent during the Jurassic and limited to specific paleoenvironments. The hydroids described here are represented by traces after a thin stolonal network with elongated polyp chambers that open to the outer polychaete tube's surface with small, more or less subcircular apertures. Small chimney-like bulges around openings are an effect of the incorporation of the organism by in vivo embedment (bioclaustration) within the outer layers of the calcareous tube of the serpulid host. Considering the rich collection of well-preserved serpulid tubes (>3000 specimens), the frequency of bioclaustrated hydroids is very low, with an infestation percentage of only 0.6% (20 cases). It has been noticed that only specimens of the genus Propomatoceros from the Upper Bajocian, Lower Bathonian, Middle Bathonian, and Callovian have been found infested. However, the majority of bioclaustrated hydroids (17 cases) have been recorded in the Middle Bathonian serpulid species Propomatoceros lumbricalis coming from a single sampled site. Representatives of other genera are not affected, which is congruent with previous reports indicating that Protulophila gestroi was strongly selective in the choice of its host. A presumably commensal relationship is compared with the recent symbiosis between the hydroids of the genus Proboscidactyla and certain genera of sabellid polychaetes.

Fan worms (Annelida: Sabellidae) from Indonesia collected by the Snellius II Expedition (1984) with descriptions of three new species and tube microstructure.

The Indonesian archipelago is one of the most diverse regions in the marine World. Many contributions on polychaete worms have been published since the Dutch Siboga Expedition to the Indonesian archipelago at the end of the 19th century. In this study, we examined specimens of Sabellidae Latreille, 1825 collected during the Snellius II Expedition (1984) to Indonesia, carried out by the Dutch Research Vessel (RV) "Tyro" and the Indonesian RV "Samudera". The results include reports of Acromegalomma acrophthalmos, A. interruptum, A. sp., Bispira manicata, B. porifera, B. secusoluta, Branchiomma boholense, Notaulax pyrrohogaster, N. tenuitorques, N. sp. 3, Parasabella crassichaetae, Perkinsiana anodina, and Sabellastarte spectabilis. In addition, three new species are described: Acromegalomma sumbense sp. nov., Claviramus olivager sp. nov., and Notaulax montiporicola sp. nov., the latter in living coral (Montipora nodosa). Further, Sabella (Potamilla) polyophthalmos Grube is transferred to Pseudopotamilla. Additional histological accounts of B. porifera and tube microstructure of A. acrophthalmos, B. porifera, P. anodina, Pseudopotamilla polyophthalmos and Sabellastarte spectabilis are also included.

Volcanic related methylmercury poisoning as the possible driver of the end-Devonian Mass Extinction.

The end-Devonian global Hangenberg event (359 Ma) is among the most devastating mass extinction events in Earth's history, albeit not one of the "Big Five". This extinction is linked to worldwide anoxia caused by global climatic changes. These changes could have been driven by astronomical forcing and volcanic cataclysm, but ultimate causes of the extinction still remain unclear. Here we report anomalously high mercury (Hg) concentration in marine deposits encompassing the Hangenberg event from Italy and Austria (Carnic Alps). The Hangenberg event recorded in the sections investigated can be here interpreted as caused by extensive volcanic activity of large igneous provinces (LIPs), arc volcanism and/or hydrothermal activity. Our results (very large Hg anomalies) imply volcanism as a most possible cause of the Hangenberg event, similar to other first order mass extinctions during the Phanerozoic. For the first time we show that apart from anoxia, proximate kill mechanism of aquatic life during the event could have been methylmercury formed by biomethylation of a volcanically derived, huge concentration of inorganic Hg supplied to the ocean. Methylmercury as a much more toxic Hg form, potentially could have had a devastating impact on end-Devonian biodiversity, causing the extinction of many pelagic species.

Coincidence of photic zone euxinia and impoverishment of arthropods in the aftermath of the Frasnian-Famennian biotic crisis.

The lowermost Famennian deposits of the Kowala quarry (Holy Cross Mountains, Poland) are becoming famous for their rich fossil content such as their abundant phosphatized arthropod remains (mostly thylacocephalans). Here, for the first time, palaeontological and geochemical data were integrated to document abundance and diversity patterns in the context of palaeoenvironmental changes. During deposition, the generally oxic to suboxic conditions were interrupted at least twice by the onset of photic zone euxinia (PZE). Previously, PZE was considered as essential in preserving phosphatised fossils from, e.g., the famous Gogo Formation, Australia. Here, we show, however, that during PZE, the abundance of arthropods drastically dropped. The phosphorous content during PZE was also very low in comparison to that from oxic-suboxic intervals where arthropods are the most abundant. As phosphorous is essential for phosphatisation but also tends to flux off the sediment during bottom water anoxia, we propose that the PZE in such a case does not promote the fossilisation of the arthropods but instead leads to their impoverishment and non-preservation. Thus, the PZE conditions with anoxic bottom waters cannot be presumed as universal for exceptional fossil preservation by phosphatisation, and caution must be paid when interpreting the fossil abundance on the background of redox conditions.

The first direct evidence of a Late Devonian coelacanth fish feeding on conodont animals.

We describe the first known occurrence of a Devonian coelacanth specimen from the lower Famennian of the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland, with a conodont element preserved in its digestive tract. A small spiral and phosphatic coprolite (fossil excrement) containing numerous conodont elements and other unrecognized remains was also found in the same deposits. The coprolite is tentatively attributed to the coelacanth. Although it is unclear whether the Late Devonian coelacanth from Poland was an active predator or a scavenger, these finds provide the first direct evidence of feeding on conodont animals by early coelacanth fish, and one of the few evidences of feeding on these animals known to date. It also expands our knowledge about the diet and trophic relations between the Paleozoic marine animals in general.

Boreal earliest Triassic biotas elucidate globally depauperate hard substrate communities after the end-Permian mass extinction.

The end-Permian mass extinction constituted the most devastating biotic crisis of the Phanerozoic. Its aftermath was characterized by harsh marine conditions incorporating volcanically induced oceanic warming, widespread anoxia and acidification. Bio-productivity accordingly experienced marked fluctuations. In particular, low palaeolatitude hard substrate communities from shallow seas fringing Western Pangaea and the Tethyan Realm were extremely impoverished, being dominated by monogeneric colonies of filter-feeding microconchid tubeworms. Here we present the first equivalent field data for Boreal hard substrate assemblages from the earliest Triassic (Induan) of East Greenland. This region bordered a discrete bio-realm situated at mid-high palaeolatitude (>30°N). Nevertheless, hard substrate biotas were compositionally identical to those from elsewhere, with microconchids encrusting Claraia bivalves and algal buildups on the sea floor. Biostratigraphical correlation further shows that Boreal microconchids underwent progressive tube modification and unique taxic diversification concordant with changing habitats over time. We interpret this as a post-extinction recovery and adaptive radiation sequence that mirrored coeval subequatorial faunas, and thus confirms hard substrate ecosystem depletion as a hallmark of the earliest Triassic interval globally.

Larval cases of caddisfly (Insecta: Trichoptera) affinity in Early Permian marine environments of Gondwana.

Caddisflies (Trichoptera) are small, cosmopolitan insects closely related to the Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). Most caddisflies construct protective cases during their larval development. Although the earliest recognisable caddisflies date back to the early Mesozoic (Early and Middle Triassic), being particularly numerous and diverse during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the first records of their larval case constructions are known exclusively from much younger, Early to Middle Jurassic non-marine deposits in the northern hemisphere. Here we present fossils from the Early Permian (Asselian-Sakmarian) marine deposits of Brazil which have strong morphological and compositional similarity to larval cases of caddisflies. If they are, which is very probable, these finds not only push back the fossil record of true caddisflies, but also indicate that their larvae constructed cases at the very beginning of their evolution in marine environments. Since modern caddisflies that construct larval cases in marine environments are only known from eastern Australia and New Zealand, we suggest that this marine ecology may have first evolved in western Gondwana during the Early Permian and later spread across southern Pangea.

First Record of Soft Tissue Preservation in the Upper Devonian of Poland.

Soft tissue preservation is reported from Upper Devonian deposits of the Holy Cross Mountains, central Poland, for the first time. The preserved soft tissues are muscles associated with arthropod cuticle fragments. The muscles are phosphatized with variable states of preservation. Well-preserved specimens display the typical banding of striated muscles. Other muscle fragments are highly degraded and/or recrystallized such that their microstructure is barely visible. The phosphatized muscles and associated cuticle are fragmented, occur in patches and some are scattered on the bedding plane. Due to the state of preservation and the lack of diagnostic features, the cuticle identification is problematic; however, it may have belonged to a phyllocarid crustacean. Taphonomic features of the remains indicate that they do not represent fossilized fecal matter (coprolite) but may represent a regurgitate, but the hypothesis is difficult to test. Most probably they represent the leftover remains after arthropod or fish scavenging. The present study shows that soft tissues, which even earlier were manipulated by scavenger, may be preserved if only special microenvironmental conditions within and around the animal remains are established.

Levoglucosan and other cellulose markers in pyrolysates of Miocene lignites: geochemical and environmental implications.

Using the pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and off-line pyrolysis/silylation methods for lignites from three Miocene brown coal basins of Poland resulted in the characterization of many organic compounds, including dominant cellulose degradation products such as levoglucosan, 1,6-anhydro-beta-D-glucofuranose, and 1,4:3,6-dianhydroglucopyranose. Levoglucosan is a general source-specific tracer for wood smoke in the atmosphere and recent sediments. The presence of unusually high levels of this compound in brown coal pyrolysates suggests that a portion of this compound concentration in some airsheds may originate from lignite combustion. On the other hand, nonglucose anhydrosaccharides, in particular, mannosan and galactosan, typical of hemicellulose, are not detected in those lignite pyrolysates investigated. This indicates that mannosan and galactosan are better specific tracers for combustion of contemporary biomass in those regions were the utilization of brown coals containing fossilized cellulose is important.

Biomolecules preserved in ca. 168 million year old fossil conifer wood.

Biomarkers are widely known to occur in the fossil record, but the unaltered biomolecules are rarely reported from sediments older than Paleogene. Polar terpenoids, the natural products most resistant to degradation processes, were reported mainly from the Tertiary conifers, and the oldest known are Cretaceous in age. In this paper, we report the occurrence of relatively high concentrations of ferruginol derivatives and other polar diterpenoids, as well as their diagenetic products, in a conifer wood Protopodocarpoxylon from the Middle Jurassic of Poland. Thus, the natural product terpenoids reported in this paper are definitely the oldest polar biomolecules detected in geological samples. The extracted phenolic abietanes like ferruginol and its derivatives (6,7-dehydroferruginol, sugiol, 11,14-dioxopisiferic acid) are produced only by distinct conifer families (Cupressaceae s. l., Podocarpaceae and Araucariaceae), to which Protopodocarpoxylon could belong based on anatomical characteristics. Therefore, the natural product terpenoids are of great advantage in systematics of fossil plant remains older than Paleogene and lacking suitable anatomical preservation.