ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Gangliosides were found to be associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we addressed a potential function of γ-secretase (presenilin) dependent cleavage of the amyloid-precursor-protein (APP) in the regulation of ganglioside de novo synthesis. METHODS: To identify a potential role of γ-secretase and APP in ganglioside de novo synthesis we used presenilin (PS) deficient and APP deficient cells and mouse brains, mutated PS as well as transgenic mice and AD post mortem brains. Changes in glucosylceramide synthase (GCS) activity were identified by incorporation of radiolabeled UDP-glucose in glucosylceramide, changes in gene expression via real-time PCR and Western blot analysis. Alterations in ganglioside levels were determined by thin layer chromatography and mass spectrometry. RESULTS: We found that PS and APP deficiency, in vitro and in vivo, resulted in increased GCS gene expression, elevated enzyme activity and thus increased glucosylceramide and total ganglioside level. Using a specific γ-secretase inhibitor revealed that PS proteolytic activity alters ganglioside homeostasis. By the use of mutated PS causing early onset AD in cell culture and transgenic mice we found that GCS is increased in AD, further substantiated by the use of AD post mortem brains, suffering from sporadic AD. CONCLUSION: APP processing regulates ganglioside de novo synthesis and is affected in AD.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/enzymology , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/metabolism , Glucosyltransferases/metabolism , Presenilins/metabolism , Alzheimer Disease/pathology , Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/metabolism , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/deficiency , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/genetics , Animals , Brain/metabolism , COS Cells , Cell Line , Chlorocebus aethiops , Female , Gangliosides/metabolism , Humans , Male , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Presenilins/deficiency , Presenilins/genetics , TransfectionABSTRACT
Gangliosides are important players for controlling neuronal function and are directly involved in AD pathology. They are among the most potent stimulators of Aß production, are enriched in amyloid plaques and bind amyloid beta (Aß). However, the molecular mechanisms linking gangliosides with AD are unknown. Here we identified the previously unknown function of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), specifically its cleavage products Aß and the APP intracellular domain (AICD), of regulating GD3-synthase (GD3S). Since GD3S is the key enzyme converting a- to b-series gangliosides, it therefore plays a major role in controlling the levels of major brain gangliosides. This regulation occurs by two separate and additive mechanisms. The first mechanism directly targets the enzymatic activity of GD3S: Upon binding of Aß to the ganglioside GM3, the immediate substrate of the GD3S, enzymatic turnover of GM3 by GD3S was strongly reduced. The second mechanism targets GD3S expression. APP cleavage results, in addition to Aß release, in the release of AICD, a known candidate for gene transcriptional regulation. AICD strongly down regulated GD3S transcription and knock-in of an AICD deletion mutant of APP in vivo, or knock-down of Fe65 in neuroblastoma cells, was sufficient to abrogate normal GD3S functionality. Equally, knock-out of the presenilin genes, presenilin 1 and presenilin 2, essential for Aß and AICD production, or of APP itself, increased GD3S activity and expression and consequently resulted in a major shift of a- to b-series gangliosides. In addition to GD3S regulation by APP processing, gangliosides in turn altered APP cleavage. GM3 decreased, whereas the ganglioside GD3, the GD3S product, increased Aß production, resulting in a regulatory feedback cycle, directly linking ganglioside metabolism with APP processing and Aß generation. A central aspect of this homeostatic control is the reduction of GD3S activity via an Aß-GM3 complex and AICD-mediated repression of GD3S transcription.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/pathology , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/metabolism , Gangliosides/metabolism , Alzheimer Disease/metabolism , Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/antagonists & inhibitors , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/genetics , Animals , COS Cells , Cell Line , Chlorocebus aethiops , Homeostasis , Immunoprecipitation , Mice , Presenilin-1/antagonists & inhibitors , Presenilin-1/genetics , Presenilin-1/metabolism , Presenilin-2/antagonists & inhibitors , Presenilin-2/genetics , Presenilin-2/metabolism , Protein Binding , RNA Interference , RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism , Sialyltransferases/metabolismABSTRACT
Lipids play an important part as risk or protective factors for Alzheimer's disease. This review summarizes the current findings in which lipids influence Alzheimer's disease and introduces the molecular mechanism how these lipids are linked to amyloid production. Besides the pathological impact of amyloid in Alzheimer's disease, amyloid has a physiological function in regulating lipid homeostasis in return. The understanding of the resulting regulatory cycles between amyloid precursor protein processing and lipids provides a platform for the development of new causal therapeutic approaches for Alzheimer's disease.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/metabolism , Homeostasis , Lipid Metabolism , Protein Processing, Post-Translational , Alzheimer Disease/pathology , Alzheimer Disease/therapy , Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor , Animals , Humans , Risk FactorsABSTRACT
Amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) has a key role in the pathological process of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the physiological function of Abeta and of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is unknown. Recently, it was shown that APP processing is sensitive to cholesterol and other lipids. Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) and sphingomyelinases (SMases) are the main enzymes that regulate cholesterol biosynthesis and sphingomyelin (SM) levels, respectively. We show that control of cholesterol and SM metabolism involves APP processing. Abeta42 directly activates neutral SMase and downregulates SM levels, whereas Abeta40 reduces cholesterol de novo synthesis by inhibition of HMGR activity. This process strictly depends on gamma-secretase activity. In line with altered Abeta40/42 generation, pathological presenilin mutations result in increased cholesterol and decreased SM levels. Our results demonstrate a biological function for APP processing and also a functional basis for the link that has been observed between lipids and Alzheimer's disease (AD).