Amphipols from A to Z.

Amphipols (APols) are short amphipathic polymers that can substitute for detergents to keep integral membrane proteins (MPs) water soluble. In this review, we discuss their structure and solution behavior; the way they associate with MPs; and the structure, dynamics, and solution properties of the resulting complexes. All MPs tested to date form water-soluble complexes with APols, and their biochemical stability is in general greatly improved compared with MPs in detergent solutions. The functionality and ligand-binding properties of APol-trapped MPs are reviewed, and the mechanisms by which APols stabilize MPs are discussed. Applications of APols include MP folding and cell-free synthesis, structural studies by NMR, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction, APol-mediated immobilization of MPs onto solid supports, proteomics, delivery of MPs to preexisting membranes, and vaccine formulation.

Thermodynamic characterization of the exchange of detergents and amphipols at the surfaces of integral membrane proteins.

The aggregation of integral membrane proteins (IMPs) in aqueous media is a significant concern for mechanistic investigations and pharmaceutical applications of this important class of proteins. Complexation of IMPs with amphiphiles, either detergents or short amphiphilic polymers known as amphipols (APols), renders IMPs water-soluble. It is common knowledge that IMP-detergent complexes are labile, while IMP-APol complexes are exceptionally stable and do not dissociate even under conditions of extreme dilution. To understand the thermodynamic origin of this difference in stability and to guide the design of new APols, we have studied by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) the heat exchanges during two reciprocal processes, the "trapping" of detergent-solubilized IMPs in APols and the "stripping" of IMP-APol complexes by detergents, using two IMPs (the transmembrane domain of porin OmpA from Escherichia coli and bacteriorhodopsin from Halobium salinarium), two APols [an anionic polymer derived from acrylic acid (A8-35) and a cationic phosphorylcholine-based polymer (C22-43)], and two neutral detergents [n-octyl thioglucoside (OTG) and n-octyltetraethylene glycol (C(8)E(4))]. In the presence of detergent, free APols and IMP-APol complexes form mixed particles, APol-detergent and IMP-APol-detergent, respectively, according to the regular mixing model. Diluting IMP-APol-detergent complexes below the critical micellar concentration (CMC) of the detergent triggers the dispersion of detergent molecules as monomers, a process characterized by an enthalpy of demicellization. The enthalpy of APol <--> detergent exchange on the hydrophobic surface of IMPs is negligibly small, an indication of the similarity of the molecular interactions of IMPs with the two types of amphiphiles. The enhanced stability against dilution of IMP-APol complexes, compared to IMP-detergent ones, originates from the difference in entropy gain achieved upon release in water of a few APol molecules (in the case of IMP-APol complexes) or several hundred detergent molecules (in the case of IMP-detergent complexes). The data account both for the stability of IMP-APols complexes in the absence of detergent and for the ease with which detergents displace APols from the surface of proteins.

Amphipols: polymeric surfactants for membrane biology research.

Membrane proteins classically are handled in aqueous solutions as complexes with detergents. The dissociating character of detergents, combined with the need to maintain an excess of them, frequently results in more or less rapid inactivation of the protein under study. Over the past few years, we have endeavored to develop a novel family of surfactants, dubbed amphipols (APs). APs are amphiphilic polymers that bind to the transmembrane surface of the protein in a noncovalent but, in the absence of a competing surfactant, quasi-irreversible manner. Membrane proteins complexed by APs are in their native state, stable, and they remain water-soluble in the absence of detergent or free APs. An update is presented of the current knowledge about these compounds and their demonstrated or putative uses in membrane biology.