ABSTRACT
Infection-related diabetes can arise as a result of virus-associated ß-cell destruction. Clinical data suggest that the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), impairs glucose homoeostasis, but experimental evidence that SARS-CoV-2 can infect pancreatic tissue has been lacking. In the present study, we show that SARS-CoV-2 infects cells of the human exocrine and endocrine pancreas ex vivo and in vivo. We demonstrate that human ß-cells express viral entry proteins, and SARS-CoV-2 infects and replicates in cultured human islets. Infection is associated with morphological, transcriptional and functional changes, including reduced numbers of insulin-secretory granules in ß-cells and impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. In COVID-19 full-body postmortem examinations, we detected SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein in pancreatic exocrine cells, and in cells that stain positive for the ß-cell marker NKX6.1 and are in close proximity to the islets of Langerhans in all four patients investigated. Our data identify the human pancreas as a target of SARS-CoV-2 infection and suggest that ß-cell infection could contribute to the metabolic dysregulation observed in patients with COVID-19.
Subject(s)
Islets of Langerhans/virology , SARS-CoV-2/growth & development , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/biosynthesis , Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/genetics , COVID-19/physiopathology , Cells, Cultured , Diabetes Mellitus , Female , Humans , Islets of Langerhans/cytology , Islets of Langerhans/physiopathology , Male , Pancreas, Exocrine/cytology , Pancreas, Exocrine/physiopathology , Pancreas, Exocrine/virology , Pancreatic Diseases/etiology , Pancreatic Diseases/virology , Serine Endopeptidases/biosynthesis , Serine Endopeptidases/genetics , Virus Internalization , Virus ReplicationABSTRACT
Liver progenitor cells (LPCs) contribute to liver regeneration during chronic damage and are implicated as cells of origin for liver cancers including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The CDKN2A locus, which encodes the tumor suppressors alternate reading frame protein (ARF) and INK4A, was identified as one of the most frequently altered genes in HCC. This study demonstrates that inactivation of CDKN2A enhances tumorigenic transformation of LPCs. The level of ARF and INK4A expression was determined in a panel of transformed and nontransformed wild-type LPC lines. Moreover, the transforming potential of LPCs with inactivated CDKN2A was shown to be enhanced in LPCs derived from Arf-/- and CDKN2Afl/fl mice and in wild-type LPCs following CRISPR-Cas9 suppression of CDKN2A. ARF and INK4A abundance is consistently reduced or ablated following LPC transformation. Arf-/- and CDKN2A-/- LPCs displayed hallmarks of transformation such as anchorage-independent and more rapid growth than control LPC lines with unaltered CDKN2A. Transformation was not immediate, suggesting that the loss of CDKN2A alone is insufficient. Further analysis revealed decreased p21 expression as well as reduced epithelial markers and increased mesenchymal markers, indicative of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, following inactivation of the CDKN2A gene were required for tumorigenic transformation. Loss of ARF and INK4A enhances the propensity of LPCs to undergo a tumorigenic transformation. As LPCs represent a cancer stem cell candidate, identifying CDKN2A as a driver of LPC transformation highlights ARF and INK4A as viable prognostic markers and therapeutic targets for HCC.
Subject(s)
Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p16/physiology , Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics , Stem Cells/pathology , Animals , Azacitidine/pharmacology , CRISPR-Cas Systems , Cell Line, Transformed , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p16/biosynthesis , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p16/deficiency , DNA Methylation/drug effects , Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition , Gene Deletion , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/genetics , Gene Knockout Techniques , Genes, p16 , Liver/cytology , Liver/embryology , Mice , Mice, Inbred BALB C , Mice, Nude , Neoplasm Proteins/biosynthesis , Neoplasm Proteins/genetics , Neoplasm Proteins/physiology , Phenotype , Snail Family Transcription Factors/biosynthesis , Snail Family Transcription Factors/genetics , Tumor Stem Cell Assay , Vimentin/biosynthesis , Vimentin/geneticsABSTRACT
Apoptosis mediated by Bax or Bak is usually thought to be triggered by BH3-only members of the Bcl-2 protein family. BH3-only proteins can directly bind to and activate Bax or Bak, or indirectly activate them by binding to anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members, thereby relieving their inhibition of Bax and Bak. Here we describe a third way of activation of Bax/Bak dependent apoptosis that does not require triggering by multiple BH3-only proteins. In factor dependent myeloid (FDM) cell lines, cycloheximide induced apoptosis by a Bax/Bak dependent mechanism, because Bax-/-Bak-/- lines were profoundly resistant, whereas FDM lines lacking one or more genes for BH3-only proteins remained highly sensitive. Addition of cycloheximide led to the rapid loss of Mcl-1 but did not affect the expression of other Bcl-2 family proteins. In support of these findings, similar results were observed by treating FDM cells with the CDK inhibitor, roscovitine. Roscovitine reduced Mcl-1 abundance and caused Bax/Bak dependent cell death, yet FDM lines lacking one or more genes for BH3-only proteins remained highly sensitive. Therefore Bax/Bak dependent apoptosis can be regulated by the abundance of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members such as Mcl-1, independently of several known BH3-only proteins.
