A promoter-RBS library for fine-tuning gene expression in Methanosarcina acetivorans.

Methanogens are the main biological producers of methane on Earth. Methanosarcina acetivorans is one of the best characterized methanogens that has powerful genetic tools for genome editing. To study the physiology of this methanogen in further detail as well as to effectively balance the flux of their engineered metabolic pathways in expansive project undertakings, there is the need for controlled gene expression, which then requires the availability of well-characterized promoters and ribosome-binding sites (RBS). In this study, we constructed a library of 33 promoter-RBS combinations that includes 13 wild-type and 14 hybrid combinations, as well as six combination variants in which the 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) was rationally engineered. The expression strength for each combination was calculated by inducing the expression of the ß-glucuronidase reporter gene in M. acetivorans cells in the presence of the two most used growth substrates, either methanol (MeOH) or trimethyl amine (TMA). In this study, the constructed library covers a relatively wide range (140-fold) between the weakest and strongest promoter-RBS combination as well as shows a steady increase and allows different levels of gene expression. Effects on the gene expression strength were also assessed by making measurements at three distinct growth phases for all 33 promoter-RBS combinations. Our promoter-RBS library is effective in enabling the fine-tuning of gene expression in M. acetivorans for physiological studies and the design of metabolic engineering projects that, e.g., aim for the biotechnological valorization of one-carbon compounds. IMPORTANCE: Methanogenic archaea are potent producers of the greenhouse gas methane and thus contribute substantially to global warming. Under controlled conditions, these microbes can catalyze the production of biogas, which is a renewable fuel, and might help counter global warming and its effects. Engineering the primary metabolism of Methanosarcina acetivorans to render it better and more useful requires controllable gene expression, yet only a few well-characterized promoters and RBSs are presently available. Our study rectifies this situation by providing a library of 33 different promoter-RBS combinations with a 140-fold dynamic range in expression strength. Future metabolic engineering projects can take advantage of this library by using these promoter-RBS combinations as an efficient and tunable gene expression system for M. acetivorans. Furthermore, the methodologies we developed in this study could also be utilized to construct promoter libraries for other types of methanogens.

The crystal structure of the N-terminal domain of the backbone pilin LrpA reveals a new closure-and-twist motion for assembling dynamic pili in Ligilactobacillus ruminis.

Sortase-dependent pili are long surface appendages that mediate attachment, colonization and biofilm formation in certain genera and species of Gram-positive bacteria. Ligilactobacillus ruminis is an autochthonous gut commensal that relies on sortase-dependent LrpCBA pili for host adherence and persistence. X-ray crystal structure snapshots of the backbone pilin LrpA were captured in two atypical bent conformations leading to a zigzag morphology in the LrpCBA pilus structure. Small-angle X-ray scattering and structural analysis revealed that LrpA also adopts the typical linear conformation, resulting in an elongated pilus morphology. Various conformational analyses and biophysical experiments helped to demonstrate that a hinge region located at the end of the flexible N-terminal domain of LrpA facilitates a new closure-and-twist motion for assembling dynamic pili during the assembly process and host attachment. Further, the incongruent combination of flexible domain-driven conformational dynamics and rigid isopeptide bond-driven stability observed in the LrpCBA pilus might also extend to the sortase-dependent pili of other bacteria colonizing a host.

LrpCBA pilus proteins of gut-dwelling Ligilactobacillus ruminis: crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis.

Adhesion to host surfaces for bacterial survival and colonization involves a variety of molecular mechanisms. Ligilactobacillus ruminis, a strict anaerobe and gut autochthonous (indigenous) commensal, relies on sortase-dependent pili (LrpCBA) for adherence to the intestinal inner walls, thereby withstanding luminal content flow. Here, the LrpCBA pilus is a promiscuous binder to gut collagen, fibronectin and epithelial cells. Structurally, the LrpCBA pilus displays a representative hetero-oligomeric arrangement and consists of three types of pilin subunit, each with its own location and function, i.e. tip LrpC for adhesion, basal LrpB for anchoring and backbone LrpA for length. To provide further structural insights into the assembly, anchoring and functional mechanisms of sortase-dependent pili, each of the L. ruminis pilus proteins was produced recombinantly for crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis. Crystals of LrpC, LrpB, LrpA and truncated LrpA generated by limited proteolysis were obtained and diffracted to resolutions of 3.0, 1.5, 2.2 and 1.4 Å, respectively. Anomalous data were also collected from crystals of selenomethionine-substituted LrpC and an iodide derivative of truncated LrpA. Successful strategies for protein production, crystallization and derivatization are reported.

Exploiting pilus-mediated bacteria-host interactions for health benefits.

Surface pili (or fimbriae) are an important but conspicuous adaptation of several genera and species of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. These long and non-flagellar multi-subunit adhesins mediate the initial contact that a bacterium has with a host or environment, and thus have come to be regarded as a key colonization factor for virulence activity in pathogens or niche adaptation in commensals. Pili in pathogenic bacteria are well recognized for their roles in the adhesion to host cells, colonization of tissues, and establishment of infection. As an 'anti-adhesive' ploy, targeting pilus-mediated attachment for disruption has become a potentially effective alternative to using antibiotics. In this review, we give a description of the several structurally distinct bacterial pilus types thus far characterized, and as well offer details about the intricacy of their individual structure, assembly, and function. With a molecular understanding of pilus biogenesis and pilus-mediated host interactions also provided, we go on to describe some of the emerging new approaches and compounds that have been recently developed to prevent the adhesion, colonization, and infection of piliated bacterial pathogens.

Crystal structure of lactobacillar SpaC reveals an atypical five-domain pilus tip adhesin: Exposing its substrate-binding and assembly in SpaCBA pili.

Adhesion to cell surfaces is an essential and early prerequisite for successful host colonization by bacteria, and in most instances involves the specificities of various adhesins. Among bacterial Gram-positives, some genera and species mediate attachment to host cells by using long non-flagellar appendages called sortase-dependent pili. A case in point is the beneficial Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG gut-adapted strain that produces the so-called SpaCBA pilus, a structure noted for its promiscuous binding to intestinal mucus and collagen. Structurally, SpaCBA pili are heteropolymers of three different pilin-protein subunits, each with its own location and function in the pilus: backbone SpaA for length, basal SpaB for anchoring, and tip SpaC for adhesion. Previously, we solved the SpaA tertiary structure by X-ray crystallography and also reported on the crystallization of SpaB and SpaC. Here, we reveal the full-length high-resolution (1.9 Å) crystal structure of SpaC, a first for a sortase-dependent pilus-bearing commensal. The SpaC structure, unlike the representative four-domain architecture of other Gram-positive tip pilins, espouses an atypically longer five-domain arrangement that includes N-terminal 'binding' and C-terminal 'stalk' regions of two and three domains, respectively. With the prospect of establishing new mechanistic insights, we provide a structural basis for the multi-substrate binding nature of SpaC, as well as a structural model that reconciles its exclusive localization at the SpaCBA pilus tip.

Crystal structure of the atypically adhesive SpaB basal pilus subunit: Mechanistic insights about its incorporation in lactobacillar SpaCBA pili.

To successfully colonize a host or environment, certain genera and species of Gram-positive bacteria have evolved to utilize the so-called sortase-dependent pilus, a long multi-subunit and non-flagellar surface adhesin. One example of this is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, a gut-adapted probiotic strain that produces SpaCBA pili. These structures are covalent hetero-oligomers built from three types of pilin subunit, each with a specific location and function (i.e., backbone SpaA for length, tip SpaC for adhesion, and basal SpaB for anchoring). Functionally, the SpaCBA pilus exhibits a promiscuous affinity for components on intestinal surfaces (e.g., mucus, collagen, and epithelial cells), which is largely attributed to the SpaC subunit. Then again, the basal SpaB pilin, in addition to acting as the terminal subunit during pilus assembly, displays an out of character mucoadhesive function. To address the structural basis of this unusual dual functionality, we reveal the 2.39 â€‹Å resolution crystal structure of SpaB. SpaB consists of one immunoglobulin-like CnaB domain and contains a putative intermolecular isopeptide bond-linking lysine and internal isopeptide bond-asparagine in an FPKN pilin motif within the C-terminal end. Remarkably, we found that a C-terminal stretch of positively charged lysine and arginine residues likely accounts for the atypical mucoadhesiveness of SpaB. Although harboring an autocatalytic triad of residues for a potential internal isopeptide interaction, the SpaB crystal structure lacked the visible electron density for intact bond formation, yet its presence was subsequently confirmed by mass spectral analysis. Finally, we propose a structural model that captures the exclusive basal positioning of SpaB in the SpaCBA pilus.

SpaB, an atypically adhesive basal pilin from the lactobacillar SpaCBA pilus: crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis.

The SpaB pilin is recognized as the basal subunit of the sortase-dependent SpaCBA pilus, which is known to be produced by the Gram-positive Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, a gut-adapted commensal advocated to have health benefits. Despite seeming to function as an archetypal basal pilin by serving as the terminal subunit in pilus assembly, SpaB also assumes an atypical role as a mucoadhesive protein. To shed light on the structural factors that contribute to this dual functional behaviour, a recombinant form of the L. rhamnosus GG SpaB pilin was produced and purified for crystallization and X-ray diffraction experiments. The crystallization of SpaB remained particularly challenging until the implementation of a three-pronged crystallization approach involving C-terminal tail truncation, surface lysine methylation and magnesium additives. Ultimately, hexagonal crystals of SpaB were produced and were able to diffract to a resolution of 2.4 Å. This crystal form belonged to space group P6522 or P6122, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 51.53, c = 408.22 Å, α = ß = 90.0, γ = 120.0°. Obtaining an interpretable electron-density map via single-wavelength anomalous diffraction (SAD) using iodide-derivative data sets did not succeed owing to the weak anomalous signal. As an alternative, attempts to provide phases by molecular replacement using the iodide-SAD data from SpaB and a collection of distant homology models (<28% sequence identity) are in progress.

Crystal structure of basal pilin SpaE reveals the molecular basis of its incorporation in the lactobacillar SpaFED pilus.

For some Gram-positive genera and species, the long-extended and adhesive sortase-dependent pilus plays an essential role during host colonization, biofilm formation, and immune modulation. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG is a gut-adapted commensal strain that harbors the operonic genes for the SpaCBA and SpaFED pili, both being comprised of three different protein subunits termed the backbone, tip, and basal pilins. Crystal structures of the backbone pilins (SpaA and SpaD) have recently been solved, and here we describe the high-resolution (1.5 Å) structural determination of the SpaE basal pilin. SpaE consists of two immunoglobulin-like CnaB domains, with each displaying a spontaneously formed internal isopeptide bond, though apparently slow forming in the N-terminal domain. Remarkably, SpaE contains an atypically lengthy unstructured C-terminal tail, along with an YPKN pilin motif peptide, which is normally reserved for backbone subunits. Based on our analysis of the crystal structure data, we provide a molecular model for the basal positioning of the SpaE pilin within the SpaFED pilus.

Bent conformation of a backbone pilin N-terminal domain supports a three-stage pilus assembly mechanism.

Effective colonization of host cells by some Gram-positive bacteria often involves using lengthy, adhesive macromolecular structures called sortase-dependent pili. Among commensals, the gut-adapted Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG strain encodes the operons for two varieties of these pili (SpaCBA and SpaFED), with each structure consisting of backbone, tip, and basal pilin subunits. Although the tertiary structure was recently solved for the backbone subunit (SpaA) of the SpaCBA pilus, no structural information exists for its counterpart in the SpaFED pilus. Here, we report several crystal structures for the SpaD backbone pilin, two of which capture the N-terminal domain in either the closed (linear) or open (bent) conformation. To our knowledge, this is the first observation of the bent conformation in Gram-positive pilin structures. Based on this bent conformation, we suggest a three-stage model, which we call the expose-ligate-seal mechanism, for the docking and assembly of backbone pilins into the sortase-dependent pilus.

Novel Molecular Insights about Lactobacillar Sortase-Dependent Piliation.

One of the more conspicuous structural features that punctuate the outer cell surface of certain bacterial Gram-positive genera and species is the sortase-dependent pilus. As these adhesive and variable-length protrusions jut outward from the cell, they provide a physically expedient and useful means for the initial contact between a bacterium and its ecological milieu. The sortase-dependent pilus displays an elongated macromolecular architecture consisting of two to three types of monomeric protein subunits (pilins), each with their own specific function and location, and that are joined together covalently by the transpeptidyl activity of a pilus-specific C-type sortase enzyme. Sortase-dependent pili were first detected among the Gram-positive pathogens and subsequently categorized as an essential virulence factor for host colonization and tissue invasion by these harmful bacteria. However, the sortase-dependent pilus was rebranded as also a niche-adaptation factor after it was revealed that "friendly" Gram-positive commensals exhibit the same kind of pilus structures, which includes two contrasting gut-adapted species from the Lactobacillus genus, allochthonous Lactobacillus rhamnosus and autochthonous Lactobacillus ruminis. This review will highlight and discuss what has been learned from the latest research carried out and published on these lactobacillar pilus types.

Crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis of SpaE, a basal pilus protein from the gut-adapted Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG.

SpaE is the predicted basal pilin subunit in the sortase-dependent SpaFED pilus from the gut-adapted and commensal Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Thus far, structural characterization of the cell-wall-anchoring basal pilins has remained difficult and has been limited to only a few examples from pathogenic genera and species. To gain a further structural understanding of the molecular mechanisms that are involved in the anchoring and assembly of sortase-dependent pili in less harmful bacteria, L. rhamnosus GG SpaE for crystallization was produced by recombinant expression in Escherichia coli. Although several attempts to crystallize the SpaE protein were unsuccessful, trigonal crystals that diffracted to a resolution of 3.1 Šwere eventually produced using PEG 3350 as a precipitant and high protein concentrations. Further optimization with a combination of additives led to the generation of SpaE crystals in an orthorhombic form that diffracted to a higher resolution of 1.5 Å. To expedite structure determination by SAD phasing, selenium-substituted (orthorhombic) SpaE crystals were grown and X-ray diffraction data were collected to 1.8 Šresolution.

A Comparative Characterization of Different Host-sourced Lactobacillus ruminis Strains and Their Adhesive, Inhibitory, and Immunomodulating Functions.

Lactobacillus ruminis, an autochthonous member of the gastrointestinal microbiota of humans and many animals, is a less characterized but interesting species for many reasons, including its intestinal prevalence and possible positive roles in host-microbe crosstalk. In this study, we isolated a novel L. ruminis strain (GRL 1172) from porcine feces and analyzed its functional characteristics and niche adaptation factors in parallel with those of three other L. ruminis strains (a human isolate, ATCC 25644, and two bovine isolates, ATCC 27780 and ATCC 27781). All the strains adhered to fibronectin, type I collagen, and human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (HT-29), but poorly to type IV collagen, porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-1), and human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2). In competition assays, all the strains were able to inhibit the adhesion of Yersinia enterocolitica and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC, F4+) to fibronectin, type I; collagen, IPEC-1, and Caco-2 cells, and the inhibition rates tended to be higher than in exclusion assays. The culture supernatants of the tested strains inhibited the growth of six selected pathogens to varying extents. The inhibition was solely based on the low pH resulting from acid production during growth. All four L. ruminis strains supported the barrier function maintenance of Caco-2 cells, as shown by the modest increase in trans-epithelial electrical resistance and the prevention of dextran diffusion during co-incubation. However, the strains could not prevent the barrier damage caused by ETEC in the Caco-2 cell model. All the tested strains and their culture supernatants were able to provoke Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2-mediated NF-κB activation and IL-8 production in vitro to varying degrees. The induction of TLR5 signaling revealed that flagella were expressed by all the tested strains, but to different extents. Flagella and pili were observed by electron microscopy on the newly isolated strain GRL 1172.

An in silico pan-genomic probe for the molecular traits behind Lactobacillus ruminis gut autochthony.

As an ecological niche, the mammalian intestine provides the ideal habitat for a variety of bacterial microorganisms. Purportedly, some commensal genera and species offer a beneficial mix of metabolic, protective, and structural processes that help sustain the natural digestive health of the host. Among these sort of gut inhabitants is the Gram-positive lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus ruminis, a strict anaerobe with both pili and flagella on its cell surface, but also known for being autochthonous (indigenous) to the intestinal environment. Given that the molecular basis of gut autochthony for this species is largely unexplored and unknown, we undertook a study at the genome level to pinpoint some of the adaptive traits behind its colonization behavior. In our pan-genomic probe of L. ruminis, the genomes of nine different strains isolated from human, bovine, porcine, and equine host guts were compiled and compared for in silico analysis. For this, we conducted a geno-phenotypic assessment of protein-coding genes, with an emphasis on those products involved with cell-surface morphology and anaerobic fermentation and respiration. We also categorized and examined the core and accessory genes that define the L. ruminis species and its strains. Here, we made an attempt to identify those genes having ecologically relevant phenotypes that might support or bring about intestinal indigenousness.

New insights about pilus formation in gut-adapted Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG from the crystal structure of the SpaA backbone-pilin subunit.

Thus far, all solved structures of pilin-proteins comprising sortase-assembled pili are from pathogenic genera and species. Here, we present the first crystal structure of a pilin subunit (SpaA) from a non-pathogen host (Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG). SpaA consists of two tandem CnaB-type domains, each with an isopeptide bond and E-box motif. Intriguingly, while the isopeptide bond in the N-terminal domain forms between lysine and asparagine, the one in the C-terminal domain atypically involves aspartate. We also solved crystal structures of mutant proteins where residues implicated in forming isopeptide bonds were replaced. Expectedly, the E-box-substituted E139A mutant lacks an isopeptide bond in the N-terminal domain. However, the C-terminal E269A substitution gave two structures; one of both domains with their isopeptide bonds present, and another of only the N-terminal domain, but with an unformed isopeptide bond and significant conformational changes. This latter crystal structure has never been observed for any other Gram-positive pilin. Notably, the C-terminal isopeptide bond still forms in D295N-substituted SpaA, irrespective of E269 being present or absent. Although E-box mutations affect SpaA proteolytic and thermal stability, a cumulative effect perturbing normal pilus polymerization was unobserved. A model showing the polymerized arrangement of SpaA within the SpaCBA pilus is proposed.

Crystallization and X-ray Crystallographic Analysis of the Adhesive SpaC Pilin Subunit in the SpaCBA Pilus of Gut-adapted Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG.

Gram-positive Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, a gut-adapted commensalic (and probiotic) strain, is known to express sortase-assembled pili on its cell surface. These SpaCBA-called pili consist of three different types of building blocks; the SpaA backbone-pilin subunit and the SpaB and SpaC ancillary pilins. SpaC is a relatively large (~90kDa) multi-domain fimbrial adhesin, and while it is located primarily at the SpaCBA pilus tip, occasionally, it can also be detected throughout the length of pilus backbone. Functionally, SpaC mainly accounts for SpaCBA pilus-mediated interactions with intestinal mucus, collagen, and human gut epithelial cells. Moreover, SpaC adhesiveness is also perceived to have a causal relationship with SpaCBA pilus-induced host-cell immune responses. In order to improve the mechanistic understanding of SpaC and its adhesive properties by structural investigation, we purified and successfully crystallized a recombinant construct of the near full-length SpaC protein (residues 36-856) in the presence of magnesium ions. X-ray diffraction data were collected to 2.6 Å resolution. The SpaC crystal belongs to the space group P21212 with unit cell parameters a = 116.5, b = 128.3, c = 136.5 Å and contains two molecules in the asymmetric unit. Presence of conserved metal ion-dependent adhesion site containing von Willebrand factor type A domain suggests its likely role in the function of SpaC.

Human Gut-Commensalic Lactobacillus ruminis ATCC 25644 Displays Sortase-Assembled Surface Piliation: Phenotypic Characterization of Its Fimbrial Operon through In Silico Predictive Analysis and Recombinant Expression in Lactococcus lactis.

Sortase-dependent surface pili (or fimbriae) in Gram-positive bacteria are well documented as a key virulence factor for certain harmful opportunistic pathogens. However, it is only recently known that these multi-subunit protein appendages are also belonging to the "friendly" commensals and now, with this new perspective, they have come to be categorized as a niche-adaptation factor as well. In this regard, it was shown earlier that sortase-assembled piliation is a native fixture of two human intestinal commensalics (i.e., Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium bifidum), and correspondingly where the pili involved have a significant role in cellular adhesion and immunomodulation processes. We now reveal that intestinal indigenous (or autochthonous) Lactobacillus ruminis is another surface-piliated commensal lactobacillar species. Heeding to in silico expectations, the predicted loci for the LrpCBA-called pili are organized tandemly in the L. ruminis genome as a canonical fimbrial operon, which then encodes for three pilin-proteins and a single C-type sortase enzyme. Through electron microscopic means, we showed that these pilus formations are a surface assemblage of tip, basal, and backbone pilin subunits (respectively named LrpC, LrpB, and LrpA) in L. ruminis, and also when expressed recombinantly in Lactococcus lactis. As well, by using the recombinant-piliated lactococci, we could define certain ecologically relevant phenotypic traits, such as the ability to adhere to extracellular matrix proteins and gut epithelial cells, but also to effectuate an induced dampening on Toll-like receptor 2 signaling and interleukin-8 responsiveness in immune-related cells. Within the context of the intestinal microcosm, by wielding such niche-advantageous cell-surface properties the LrpCBA pilus would undoubtedly have a requisite functional role in the colonization dynamics of L. ruminis indigeneity. Our study provides only the second description of a native-piliated Lactobacillus species, but at the same time also involves the structural and functional characterization of a third type of lactobacillar pilus.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of SpaD, a backbone-pilin subunit encoded by the fimbrial spaFED operon in Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG.

SpaD is the predicted backbone-pilin subunit of the SpaFED pilus, whose loci are encoded by the fimbrial spaFED operon in Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, a Gram-positive gut-adapted commensal strain with perceived probiotic benefits. In this study, soluble recombinant SpaD protein was overproduced in Escherichia coli and then purified by Ni2+-chelating affinity and gel-filtration chromatography. After limited proteolysis with α-chymotrypsin, good-quality crystals of SpaD were obtained which diffracted beyond 2.0 Šresolution. These crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a=50.11, b=83.27, c=149.65 Å. For phasing, sodium iodide-derivatized crystals were prepared using the halide quick-soaking method and diffraction data were collected in-house to a resolution of 2.2 Å. An interpretable electron-density map was successfully obtained using single-wavelength anomalous diffraction (SAD).

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and its SpaC pilus adhesin modulate inflammatory responsiveness and TLR-related gene expression in the fetal human gut.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial contact in utero modulates fetal and neonatal immune responses. Maternal probiotic supplementation reduces the risk of immune-mediated disease in the infant. We investigated the immunomodulatory properties of live Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and its SpaC pilus adhesin in human fetal intestinal models. METHODS: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA expression was measured by qPCR in a human fetal intestinal organ culture model exposed to live L. rhamnosus GG and proinflammatory stimuli. Binding of recombinant SpaC pilus protein to intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) was assessed in human fetal intestinal organ culture and the human fetal intestinal epithelial cell line H4 by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence, respectively. TLR-related gene expression in fetal ileal organ culture after exposure to recombinant SpaC was assessed by qPCR. RESULTS: Live L. rhamnosus GG significantly attenuates pathogen-induced TNF-α mRNA expression in the human fetal gut. Recombinant SpaC protein was found to adhere to the fetal gut and to modulate varying levels of TLR-related gene expression. CONCLUSION: The human fetal gut is responsive to luminal microbes. L. rhamnosus GG significantly attenuates fetal intestinal inflammatory responses to pathogenic bacteria. The L. rhamnosus GG pilus adhesin SpaC binds to immature human IECs and directly modulates IEC innate immune gene expression.

Piliation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG promotes adhesion, phagocytosis, and cytokine modulation in macrophages.

Recently, spaCBA-encoded pili on the cell surface of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG were identified to be key molecules for binding to human intestinal mucus and Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells. Here, we investigated the role of the SpaCBA pilus of L. rhamnosus GG in the interaction with macrophages in vitro by comparing the wild type with surface mutants. Our results show that SpaCBA pili play a significant role in the capacity for adhesion to macrophages and also promote bacterial uptake by these phagocytic cells. Interestingly, our data suggest that SpaCBA pili also mediate anti-inflammatory effects by induction of interleukin-10 (IL-10) mRNA and reduction of interleukin-6 (IL-6) mRNA in a murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. These pili appear to mediate these effects indirectly by promoting close contact with the macrophages, facilitating the exertion of anti-inflammatory effects by other surface molecules via yet unknown mechanisms. Blockage of complement receptor 3 (CR3), previously identified to be a receptor for streptococcal pili, significantly decreased the uptake of pilus-expressing strains in RAW 264.7 cells, while the expression of IL-10 and IL-6 mRNA by these macrophages was not affected by this blocking. On the other hand, blockage of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) significantly reduced the expression of IL-6 mRNA irrespective of the presence of pili.