The effects of nonverbal pride and skill on judgements of victory and social influence: a boxing study.

Displaying nonverbal pride after a boxing match leads to judgements of success. However, it is not clear the extent to which this effect generalises nor whether it can override competing information. An experimental design had 214 participants watch two boxing clips that were manipulated so that one was evenly matched and the other had a fighter with an advantage (i.e. demonstrating more skill). Nonverbal behaviour at the completion of the fight varied between fighters (pride versus neutral). When the fight was evenly matched, the fighters displaying nonverbal pride were judged as winning the fight, but the fighter did not garner increased social influence. In contrast, when fighters demonstrated superior skill, the more skilled fighters who displayed neutral postures rather than the less-skilled ones displaying pride were judged as winning the fight, and the skilled fighters garnered increased social influence. These results suggest that in a boxing context, a pride bias works in evenly matched scenarios, but when differences in skill are more clearly present, a skill bias is more pronounced and leads to more social influence. Furthermore, perceptions of skill were associated with judgments of victory across stimuli, suggesting the importance of skill perceptions in such judgments.

Degenerative changes of the wrist in mixed martial arts and boxing based on the three column theory.

OBJECTIVE: Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a relatively young combat sport. In contrast to classic boxing, MMA combines techniques of grappling and striking. However, characteristic long-term effects of MMA on the wrist are discussed controversially. Aim of this study was to elucidate characteristic degenerative changes of the wrist from MMA fighters in comparison to classic boxers. METHODS: In this study, eleven professional MMA fighters and ten professional boxers with chronic wrist pain were examined and compared. Age, weight, number of fights and weekly hours of training were recorded. Wrist and hand of each fighter were examined using a 3T-MR scanner. Degenerations of the radial, central and ulnar column were analyzed according to Navarro's three-column theory and degenerative changes were categorized based on the classification of Fredericson. RESULTS: There was no significant difference of age, weight and number of fights between MMA fighters and boxers (p > 0.15). However, MMA fighters practiced significantly more hours per week (19.5 (MMA) vs. 8.5 (boxing) hours/week, p < 0.001). No significant associations were found between different training times per Week in terms of degenerative changes of the wrist in MMA and boxing based on the three column theory. The comparison of degenerative changes in the columns between MMA and boxing showed no significant differences. The MRI showed a significantly higher degeneration in the radial column compared to the central column among MMA fighters for ligaments (p = 0.01) and bones (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: Due to different fighting techniques, different physical traumas, including falls, pattern of degenerations of the wrist between MMA fighters and boxers are different. MMA fighters suffer of a highly degenerative radial column and boxers suffer of a homogeneous degeneration of all three columns.

Care of The Older Fighter: Position Statement of the Association of Ringside Physicians.

Older Fighters are defined as combat sports athletes older than 35 years, based on heightened medical risks and historical classification. Age-related changes to the neurological, cardiopulmonary, endocrinological, thermoregulatory, osmoregulatory, and musculoskeletal systems increase these athletes' risks for injury and may prolong their recovery. These age-related risks warrant special considerations for competition, licensure, prefight medical clearance, in-fight supervision, post-fight examination, and counseling regarding training practices and retirement from combat sports. Neurological considerations include increased risk of intracranial lesions, intracranial hemorrhage, and sequelae from traumatic brain injury (TBI), warranting more comprehensive neurological evaluation and neuroimaging. Increased risk of myocardial ischemia and infarction warrant careful assessment of cardiac risk factors and scrutiny of cardiovascular fitness. Older fighters may take longer time to recover from musculoskeletal injury; post-injury clearance should be individualized.

Effect of Boxing Exercises on the Functional Ability and Quality of Life of Individuals with Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurological disorder caused by the loss of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra and characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. Boxing is a type of complementary therapy to improve symptoms in PD. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of boxing training on the functionality and quality of life of patients with PD. The literature search was performed on PubMed, Scopus, PEDro, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar search engines. The PEDro scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the studies. This systematic review included three studies that examined disease severity, mobility, physical activity, balance, and quality of life. According to the PEDro scale criteria, the three articles included were of high methodological quality. Statistically significant improvements after the implementation of boxing training was shown for balance and quality of life in contrast to the other variables. Boxing training intervention programs had a positive effect on balance and quality of life in patients with PD; however, the results are conflicting regarding certain functionality variables. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct further research to examine the effectiveness of boxing training on the functionality and quality of life of patients with Parkinson's disease.

Can boxing relieve symptoms of Parkinson's disease and improve quality of life? A qualitative study of the experiences of participants attending the Danish Parkinson boxing concept.

PURPOSE: To explore how people with Parkinson's (PwP) experience the impact of attending Parkinson Boxing (PB) on their symptoms and quality of life. METHODS: The authors NMAY and PeB conducted participant observations of four PB sessions and eight semi-structured interviews with PwP who participated in PB in Denmark. The empirical material was systematically analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Four main themes arose. The participants experience a sense of community from being part of a group where they share the same diagnosis. They described various bodily experiences related to their physical and cognitive functioning and well-being, as well as emotional experiences including feelings of joy, gratitude, and mental well-being. They are motivated to participate in the training sessions, and participation further motivates them to retain their exercise practice. CONCLUSIONS: The experienced impact of participating in PB relates to physical relief of symptoms and improved functioning in everyday life, as well as a mental lift, energy, and joy during and after training sessions. Participants described being motivated to attend PB and to continue their training practice. Thus, PB entails experiences of relief of symptoms and presumably improved quality of life for the participants.

Physical activity is an effective complementary treatment to experience improvement in health and well-being for people affected by Parkinson's disease.The Danish concept, Parkinson Boxing, inspired by the concept Rock Steady Boxing from USA, shows promise to relieve symptoms, improve mental and physical well-being and create social relationships.The motivation to engage in physical activity increases when exercising in a diagnosis-specific group as Parkinson Boxing where participants have a shared understanding of each other's challenges and simultaneously achieve social relationships.We recommend that rehabilitation professionals use diagnosis-specific group-based interventions which in addition to physical benefits creates basis for a sense of community, mental well-being and motivation to maintain physical activity among participants.

Long-term impact of a community-based adapted boxing program on physical functioning and quality of life of individuals with Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Adapted boxing can help improve the physical functioning and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD). Whether these benefits persist longitudinally is unclear. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate the impact of a community-based adapted boxing program on the physical functioning and HRQoL of individuals with PD over 1-1.5 years. METHODS: Twenty-six individuals with PD agreed to share their results on tests administered upon enrollment in the program (PRE) and ∼431 days later (POST). The tests included the Fullerton Advanced Balance scale, (FAB), the Timed Up-and-Go test (TUG), the 30-second Sit-to-Stand test (30-STS), and the PD questionnaire-39 (PDQ-39). RESULTS: From PRE to POST, performance significantly improved on the TUG and 30-STS tests (both p < 0.001), but not on the FAB (p = 0.79). Over the same period, PDQ-39 scores significantly increased (p = 0.05). No PRE to POST changes surpassed the minimal detectable change threshold. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that adapted boxing is at worst non-detrimental and at best potentially beneficial for muscle strength, endurance, and functional mobility in individuals with PD. However, adapted boxing probably cannot fully counteract the HRQoL decrements that accompany PD progression.

El desentrenamiento deportivo en el boxeo

La preparación del boxeador conlleva cambios y adaptaciones fisiológicas para garantizar las cargas físicas, psíquicas y sociales a las que han sido sometidos sus practicantes. Finalizada dicha etapa aparece el desentrenamiento deportivo, cuya naturaleza es eminentemente pedagógica y consiste en desinstalar los componentes que garantizaron la acumulación de cargas durante su etapa como boxeador activo, hasta alcanzar los niveles de un practicante sistemático normal de la Cultura Física. El objetivo de este trabajo consistió en diseñar una estrategia pedagógica sustentada en un modelo de igual naturaleza para el desentrenamiento potenciado con la equino-interacción-profiláctica, a partir del uso de ejercicios con caballos como elemento de cambio. Se utilizaron como métodos empíricos y técnicas la observación de las sesiones de deportivo, el análisis de documentos, la encuesta a exboxeadores, entrenadores, médicos deportivos, funcionarios y expertos seleccionados, así como los talleres de opinión crítica y socialización entre entrenadores de boxeo. Como resultados se obtuvo un modelo pedagógico del que se derivó una estrategia. Estos aportes fueron constatados mediante la aplicación parcial de la estrategia en un combinado deportivo en Majibacoa, Las Tunas y se demostró su factibilidad para ser generalizada. El artículo que se ofrece tiene como objetivo socializar resultados de la investigación realizada sobre el desentrenamiento deportivo en el boxeo potenciado con el equino-interacción-profiláctica. De manera conclusiva, los aportes teórico y práctico demostraron el cumplimiento del objetivo de la investigación y la solución del problema científico.

A preparação do boxeador implica em mudanças e adaptações fisiológicas para garantir as cargas físicas, psicológicas e sociais às quais o boxeador foi submetido. Ao final dessa etapa, surge o destreinamento esportivo, cuja natureza é eminentemente pedagógica e consiste em desinstalar os componentes que garantiram o acúmulo de cargas durante sua etapa como boxeador ativo, até atingir os níveis de um praticante normal sistemático de Cultura Física. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em projetar uma estratégia pedagógica baseada em um modelo semelhante de destreinamento aprimorado com a interação equino-profilática, baseada no uso de exercícios com cavalos como elemento de mudança. Os métodos e técnicas empíricos utilizados foram a observação de sessões esportivas, a análise de documentos, pesquisas com ex-pugilistas, treinadores, médicos esportivos, oficiais e especialistas selecionados, bem como workshops de opinião crítica e socialização entre treinadores de boxe. Como resultado, foi obtido um modelo pedagógico do qual derivou uma estratégia. Essas contribuições foram confirmadas por meio da aplicação parcial da estratégia em uma equipe esportiva em Majibacoa, Las Tunas, e sua viabilidade de generalização foi demonstrada. O objetivo deste artigo é socializar os resultados da pesquisa realizada sobre o destreinamento esportivo no boxe, aprimorado com a interação equino-profilática. Em conclusão, as contribuições teóricas e práticas demonstraram o cumprimento do objetivo da pesquisa e a solução do problema científico.

The preparation of the boxer entails physiological changes and adaptations to guarantee the physical, psychological and social loads to which its practitioners have been subjected. Once this stage is completed, sports detraining appears, the nature of which is eminently pedagogical and consists of uninstalling the components that guaranteed the accumulation of loads during his time as an active boxer, until reaching the levels of a normal systematic practitioner of Physical Culture. The objective of this work was to design a pedagogical strategy based on a model of the same nature for detraining enhanced with equine-interaction-prophylactics, based on the use of exercises with horses as an element of change. Observation of sports sessions, document analysis, a survey of former boxers, coaches, sports doctors, officials and selected experts, as well as critical opinion and socialization workshops among boxing coaches, were used as empirical methods and techniques. As results, a pedagogical model was obtained from which a strategy was derived. These contributions were verified through the partial application of the strategy in a sports complex in Majibacoa, Las Tunas and its feasibility to be generalized was demonstrated. The article offered aims to socialize results of the research carried out on sports detraining in boxing enhanced with equine-interaction-prophylaxis. Conclusively, the theoretical and practical contributions demonstrated the fulfillment of the research objective and the solution of the scientific problem.

Application of immersive virtual reality in the training of wheelchair boxers: evaluation of exercise intensity and users experience additional load- a pilot exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Over the last few years, there has been a growing interest in workout apps and active virtual reality video games (AVRGs), which provide entertainment and enable users to undertake various forms of physical activity (PA) at home. Presumably, these types of exercises can be particularly useful for people with physical disabilities, who experience problems with access to sports and leisure facilities due to architectural and communication barriers. However, it is interesting whether the intensity of PA in VR is high enough to provide users with health benefits, as it is mainly based on arm movements. OBJECTIVE: The main aim of the study was to evaluate the intensity of physical exercise of wheelchair boxers during a boxing training session using the FitXR app in immersive VR in light of health-related PA recommendations. The effect of Velcro-fastened hand-held weights (HHWs) on the intensity of PA undertaken by people in VR was also examined, and the attractiveness of virtual exercise were assessed in the opinion of users. METHODS: PA intensity was evaluated using a heart rate monitor based on the percentage of maximal heart rate (% HRmax) and the Borg's rating of perceived exertion (RPE 6-20). The attractiveness perceived during exercise by users were evaluated using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES 1-7 scale). RESULTS: The study shows that the exercise intensity of the athletes during wheelchair boxing training in VR is at a beneficial moderate level for health (HRave=68.98% HRmax). The use of HHWs (0.5 kg) does not significantly increase the PA intensity of the individuals during virtual exercise. Users with disabilities highly rated the attractiveness (6.32 ± 0.79 points) of PA during virtual boxing training. CONCLUSIONS: Boxing exercises in VR can be an attractive and health-related form of PA for wheelchair boxers and a supplement to their conventional training.

Boxing behavior recognition based on artificial intelligence convolutional neural network with sports psychology assistant.

The purpose of this study is to deeply understand the psychological state of boxers before the competition, and explore an efficient boxing action classification and recognition model supported by artificial intelligence (AI) technology through these psychological characteristics. Firstly, this study systematically measures the key psychological dimensions of boxers, such as anxiety level, self-confidence, team identity, and opponent attitude, through psychological scale survey to obtain detailed psychological data. Then, based on these data, this study innovatively constructs a boxing action classification and recognition model based on BERT fusion 3D-ResNet, which not only comprehensively considers psychological information, but also carefully considers action characteristics to improve the classification accuracy of boxing actions. The performance evaluation shows that the model proposed in this study is significantly superior to the traditional model in terms of loss value, accuracy and F1 value, and the accuracy reaches 96.86%. Therefore, through the comprehensive application of psychology and deep learning, this study successfully constructs a boxing action classification and recognition model that can fully understand the psychological state of boxers, which provides strong support for the psychological training and action classification of boxers.

Interactive boxing-cycling on frailty and activity limitations in frail and prefrail older adults: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Frailty is common among older adults, often associated with activity limitations during physical and walking tasks. The interactive boxing-cycling combination has the potential to be an innovative and efficient training method, and our hypothesis was that interactive boxing-cycling would be superior to stationary cycling in improving frailty and activity limitations in frail and prefrail older adults. OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of interactive boxing-cycling on frailty and activity limitations in frail and prefrail older adults compared to stationary cycling. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Forty-five participants who met at least one frailty phenotype criteria were randomly assigned to receive either interactive boxing-cycling (n = 23) or stationary-cycling (n = 22) for 36 sessions over 12 weeks. The interactive boxing-cycling was performed on a cycle boxer bike with an interactive boxing panel fixed in front of the bike. The primary outcomes were frailty status, including score and phenotypes. Secondary outcomes included activity limitations during physical and walking tasks. The pre- and post-intervention data of both groups were analyzed using a repeated measures two-way ANOVA. RESULTS: Both types of cycling significantly improved frailty scores (p<0.001). Interactive boxing-cycling was more effective than stationary cycling in reversing the frailty phenotype of muscle weakness (p = 0.03, odds ratio 9.19) and demonstrated greater improvements than stationary cycling in arm curl (p = 0.002, η2=0.20), functional reach (p = 0.001, η2=0.22), and grip strength (p = 0.02, η2=0.12) tests. Additionally, interactive boxing-cycling exhibited a greater effect on gait speed (p = 0.02, η2=0.13) and gait variability (p = 0.01, η2=0.14) during dual-task walking. CONCLUSION: In frail and prefrail older adults, interactive boxing-cycling effectively improves frailty but is not superior to stationary cycling. However, it is more effective at improving certain activity limitations. REGISTRATION NUMBER: TCTR20220328001.

Rehabilitation of hemianopia and visuospatial hemineglect with a mixed intervention including adapted boxing therapy: An exploratory case study.

Visual field loss and visuospatial neglect are frequent consequences of cerebral stroke. They often have a strong impact on independence in many daily activities. Rehabilitation aiming to decrease these disabilities is therefore important, and several techniques have been proposed to foster awareness, compensation, or restitution of the impaired visual field. We here describe a rehabilitation intervention using adapted boxing therapy that was part of a pluridisciplinary intervention tailored for a particular case. A 58-year-old man with left homonymous hemianopia (HH) and mild visuospatial hemineglect participated in 36 sessions of boxing therapy six months after a right temporo-occipital stroke. Repeated stimulation of his blind and neglected hemifield, and training to compensate for his deficits through improved use of his healthy hemifield were performed through boxing exercises. The patient showed a stable HH before the beginning of the training. After six months of boxing therapy, he reported improved awareness of his visual environment. Critically, his HH had evolved to a left superior quadrantanopia and spatial attention for left-sided stimuli had improved. Several cognitive functions and his mood also showed improvement. We conclude that boxing therapy has the potential to improve the compensation of visuospatial impairments in individual patients with visual field loss.

Acute Hemodynamic, Metabolic, and Hormonal Responses to a Boxing Exergame with and without Blood Flow Restriction in Non-Athlete Young Individuals.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to compare acute hemodynamic, metabolic (glucose and blood lactate concentrations), hormonal (growth hormone and normetanephrine), heart rate variability (HRV), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) responses before and after bouts of a boxing exergame with and without blood flow restriction (BFR) in non-athlete young individuals. METHODS: Fourteen participants (age: 30 ± 10 y; BMI: 21 ± 3 kg.m-2) participated in two sessions of a 20 min boxing exergame. During week one, the participants were randomly divided into two groups and played against one another under normal (n = 7) and BFR (n = 7) conditions. Over the next exercise session, participants were then reallocated to the opposite condition (normal vs. BFR) for data collection. Hemodynamic, metabolic, HRV, and hormonal parameters were measured before and immediately after the exercise protocols. RESULTS: Playing exergame led to a significant increase in hemodynamic variables (except for diastolic blood pressure) regardless of BFR condition with no between-group differences. Regarding HRV, significant reductions in total power (TP) and low-frequency (LF) waves were identified in the non-BFR group (p < 0.0001) compared with the BFR group. Conversely, a significant increase in very LF (VLF) waves was noted for the BFR group (p = 0.050), compared with the non-BFR group. Significant increases were observed in serum concentrations of growth hormone, normetanephrine, and blood lactate concentration from pre- to post-exercise under both conditions (p ≤ 0.05), with no significant differences between the groups. Moreover, no statistically significant changes were observed in glucose levels. RPE responses were significantly greater (p ≤ 0.05) in the BFR group compared with the non-BFR group throughout the exercise session. CONCLUSIONS: We observed similar hemodynamic, hormonal, and metabolic responses after an acute boxing exergame session in young individuals, whether conducted with or without BFR. However, notable differences were observed in certain HRV markers and RPE. Specifically, the inclusion of BFR resulted in an elevation of VLF and a heightened perceived exertion. These findings suggest that BFR may alter cardiac autonomic and perceptual responses during exergaming. Further research is warranted to understand the long-term implications and potential benefits of incorporating BFR into exergaming routines.

The spectrum of acute and chronic consequences of neurotrauma in professional and amateur boxing - A call to action is advocated to better understand and prevent this phenomenon.

Introduction: Despite changes in regulations, boxing-related injuries and fatalities are still occurring. The numbers available in the literature regarding mortality and long-term consequences may not accurately represent the actual situation. Indeed, the real extent of this phenomenon remains poorly known. Research question: Delineating the spectrum of acute and chronic consequences of boxing-related traumatic brain injuries (TBI). Material and methods: Narrative review of the literature concerning acute and chronic boxing-related TBI. Keywords such as mortality, boxing, subdural hematoma were used to search in PubMed and Google scholar. An updated analysis of the Velazquez fatalities collection in boxing was undertaken. Results: The Velazquez collection includes 2076 fatalities from 1720 to the present with a death rate of 10 athletes per year. More than half of the deaths (N = 1354, 65.2%) occurred after a knock-out, and nearly 75% happened during professional bouts. In Australia, from 1832 to 2020, 163 fatalities were recorded (75% professional). In Japan, from 1952 to 2016, 38 deaths were recorded with a mean age of 23.9 years. Up to 40% of retired professional boxers in the United States were diagnosed with symptoms of chronic brain injury. Clinical dementia is far more prevalent among professional boxers than in amateurs with an incidence of 20%. Discussion and conclusions: A concerted effort to raise awareness and shed light on boxing-related neuro-trauma is required. Similar considerations can be made for other combat sports or contact sports. A call to action to address this knowledge gap, decrease and prevent this phenomenon is advocated.

The acute influence of amateur boxing on dynamic cerebral autoregulation and cerebrovascular reactivity to carbon dioxide.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of head impacts, sustained over the course of three rounds of amateur boxing, on indices of cerebrovascular function. METHODS: Eighteen university amateur boxers (six female) completed three experimental trials in a randomised order; (1) three rounds of boxing (BOX), (2) an equivalent bout of pad boxing (where no blows to the head were sustained; PAD), and (3) a time-matched seated control trial (CON). Indices of cerebrovascular function were determined immediately before and 45 min after each trial. Specifically, dynamic cerebral autoregulation (dCA) was determined by considering the relationship between changes in cerebral blood velocity and mean arterial pressure during 5 min of squat-stand manoeuvres at 0.05 and 0.10 Hz. Cerebrovascular reactivity was determined using serial breath holding and hyperventilation attempts. RESULTS: Participants received an average of 40 ± 16 punches to the head during the BOX trial. Diastolic, mean and systolic dCA phase during squat stand manoeuvres at 0.05 Hz was lower after BOX compared to pre BOX (P ≤ 0.02, effect size (d) ≥ 0.74). No other alterations in dCA outcomes were observed at 0.05 or 0.10 Hz. The number of head impacts received during the BOX trial was associated with the change in systolic phase (r = 0.50, P = 0.03). No differences in cerebrovascular reactivity to breath holding or hyperventilation were observed. CONCLUSIONS: A typical bout of amateur boxing (i.e., three rounds) can subtly alter cerebral pressure-flow dynamics, and the magnitude of this change may be related to head impact exposure.

Transgender competition in combat sports: Position statement of the Association of ringside physicians.

The Association of Ringside Physicians (ARP) is committed to the concept of fair competition. It advocates for two equally skilled and matched athletes to keep bouts fair, competitive, entertaining, and, most importantly, safe for all combatants. Numerous studies have proven that transgender women may have a competitive athletic advantage against otherwise matched cis-gender women. Likewise, transgender men may suffer a competitive disadvantage against cis-gender men. These differences - both anatomic and physiologic - persist despite normalization of sex hormone levels and create disparities in competitive abilities that are not compatible with the spirit of fair competition. More importantly, allowing transgender athletes to compete against cisgender athletes in combat sports, which already involve significant risk of serious injury, unnecessarily raises the risk of injury due to these differences. Hence the ARP does not support transgender athlete competition against cisgender athletes in combat sports.

Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate supplementation preserves fat-free mass in collegiate boxers during acute body mass loss.

Acute body mass loss before competitions in combat sports usually leads to loss in fat-free mass. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) has been shown to increase skeletal muscle mass and muscle strength in various muscle wasting conditions. This study investigated the effect of HMB supplementation on body composition and sport-specific performance in well-trained boxers consuming a hypocaloric diet. Twelve male college boxers were divided into the HMB and placebo (PLA) groups using a body weight-matched single-blind parallel design. The study comprised a 6-day weight loss period (days 1-6), followed by a 3-day competition period (days 7-9). The participants in both the groups consumed 16 kcal/kg/day, including 1.6-1.7 g/kg of carbohydrates, 1.2-1.3 g/kg of protein, and 0.45-0.5 g/kg of fat during the 9-day period. The HMB group consumed 3 g/day HMB. Body composition measurement, isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and a simulated boxing match were performed at baseline and on days 7, 8, and 9. Fasting blood samples were collected on the day before day 1 and on days 7, 8, and 9. Body mass was significantly decreased after the 6-day weight loss period (HMB group: baseline: 69.4 ± 11.2 kg, day 7: 67.1 ± 11.2 kg; PLA group: baseline: 68.6 ± 12.1 kg, day 7: 65.7 ± 11.5 kg, P < 0.05) while it was unchanged on the 3-day competition period in both the groups. Fat-free mass in the HMB group was maintained throughout the 9-day period (baseline: 56.7 ± 9.3 kg, day 7: 56.3 ± 8.7 kg, day 9: 55.8 ± 9.5 kg) whereas it significantly decreased on days 7 and 9 compared to the baseline in the PLA group (baseline: 55.2 ± 6.4 kg, day 7: 54.1 ± 6.6 kg, day 9: 54.0 ± 6.6 kg, P < 0.05). In the PLA group, the average and maximal heart rates in round 1 and the average heart rate in round 2 on days 8 and 9 were significantly lower than those at baseline, while these parameters were unchanged in the HMB group. The maximal force and the rate of force development in the IMTP remained unchanged among the different timepoints in both the groups. The blood biochemical parameters were similar at any timepoint between the PLA and HMB groups. HMB supplementation during acute weight loss may preserve fat-free mass and maintain heart rate response in subsequent simulated matches in well-trained boxers. In addition, HMB supplementation had a nonsignificant effect on glucose, fat, and protein metabolism during energy restriction.

Knockout rates across the states as a way of predicting injury and knockout based on fighter sex, weight, or experience.

Combat sports, such as boxing and mixed martial arts [MMA], have the unique objective to finish a bout by way of knockout [KO] or technical knockout [TKO]. There are potentially both short- and long-term neurological injuries that can happen as a result of the repeated head trauma sustained in bouts, and thus it is imperative to identify the athletes that are at increased risk. Using an online database of professional boxing bouts [boxrec.com] over a 6-month period, KO/TKO rates were calculated across different states, weight classes, sex, and Fight Exposure Score [FES] categories. There was found to be a significant association between KO/TKO rates and weight class, sex, and FES category with heavyweights, males and FES 0 boxers having higher KO/TKO rates. KO/TKO rates were increased in winless boxers. KO/TKO rates across the states are documented in the study.

Exploring the effects of 3D-360°VR and 2D viewing modes on gaze behavior, head excursion, and workload during a boxing specific anticipation task.

Introduction: Recent evidence has started to demonstrate that 360°VR, a type of VR that immerses a user within a 360° video, has advantages over two-dimensional (2D) video displays in the context of perceptual-cognitive evaluation and training. However, there is currently a lack of empirical evidence to explain how perceptual-cognitive strategies differ between these two paradigms when performing sports-related tasks. Thus, the objective of this study was to examine and compare the impact of different viewing conditions (e.g., 3D-360°VR and 2D video displays), on gaze behavior and head excursions in a boxing-specific anticipatory task. A secondary objective was to assess the workload associated with each viewing mode, including the level of presence experienced. Thirdly, an exploratory analysis was conducted to evaluate any potential sex differences. Methods: Thirty-two novice participants (16 females) were recruited for this study. A total of 24 single-punch sequences were randomly presented using a standalone VR headset (Pico Neo 3 Pro Eye), with two different viewing modes: 3D-360°VR and 2D. Participants were instructed to respond to the punches with appropriate motor actions, aiming to avoid punches. Gaze behavior was recorded using a Tobii eyetracker embedded in the VR headset. Workload and presence were measured with the SIM-TLX questionnaire. Fixation duration, number of fixations, saccades, search rate and head excursions (roll, pitch, yaw) were analyzed using linear mixed models. Results: The results revealed significant shorter fixation durations and more head excursions (roll, pitch) in 3D-360°VR, compared to the 2D viewing mode (ps < 0.05). The sense of presence was found to be much higher in the 3D-360°VR viewing mode (p < 0.05). No sex differences were observed. These results demonstrate that 360°VR elicited shorter fixation durations but mostly greater head excursions and immersion compared to a 2D projection in the context of a boxing-specific task. Discussion: These findings contribute to the understanding of previous evidence supporting the possible advantages of using 360°VR over 2D for perceptual-cognitive evaluation and training purposes. Further validation studies that compare behaviors and performance in 360°VR with those in the real-world will be needed.

Headguard use in combat sports: position statement of the Association of Ringside Physicians.

Headguard use is appropriate during some combat sports activities where the risks of injury to the face and ears are elevated. Headguards are highly effective in reducing the incidence of facial lacerations in studies of amateur boxers and are just as effective in other striking sports. They should be used in scenarios - especially sparring prior to competitions - where avoidance of laceration and subsequent exposure to potential blood-borne pathogens is important. Headguards are appropriate where avoidance of auricular injury is deemed important; limited data show a marked reduction in incidence of auricular injury in wrestlers wearing headguards.Headguards should not be relied upon to reduce the risk of concussion or other traumatic brain injury. They have not been shown to prevent these types of injuries in combat sports or other sports, and human studies on the effect of headguards on concussive injury are lacking. While biomechanical studies suggest they reduce linear and rotational acceleration of the cranium, changes in athlete behavior to more risk-taking when wearing headguards may offset any risk reduction. In the absence of high-quality studies on headguard use, the Association of Ringside Physicians recommends that further research be conducted to clarify the role of headguards in all combat sports, at all ages of participation. Furthermore, in the absence of data on gender differences, policies should be standardized for men and women.

A narrative review of psychiatric features of traumatic encephalopathy syndrome as conceptualized in the 20th century.

Introduction: Some ultra-high exposure boxers from the 20th century suffered from neurological problems characterized by slurred speech, personality changes (e.g., childishness or aggressiveness), and frank gait and coordination problems, with some noted to have progressive Parkinsonian-like signs. Varying degrees of cognitive impairment were also described, with some experiencing moderate to severe dementia. The onset of the neurological problems often began while they were young men and still actively fighting. More recently, traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES) has been proposed to be present in athletes who have a history of contact (e.g., soccer) and collision sport participation (e.g., American-style football). The characterization of TES has incorporated a much broader description than the neurological problems described in boxers from the 20th century. Some have considered TES to include depression, suicidality, anxiety, and substance abuse. Purpose: We carefully re-examined the published clinical literature of boxing cases from the 20th century to determine whether there is evidence to support conceptualizing psychiatric problems as being diagnostic clinical features of TES. Methods: We reviewed clinical descriptions from 155 current and former boxers described in 21 articles published between 1928 and 1999. Results: More than one third of cases (34.8%) had a psychiatric, neuropsychiatric, or neurobehavioral problem described in their case histories. However, only 6.5% of the cases were described as primarily psychiatric or neuropsychiatric in nature. The percentages documented as having specific psychiatric problems were as follows: depression = 11.0%, suicidality = 0.6%, anxiety = 3.9%, anger control problems = 20.0%, paranoia/suspiciousness = 11.6%, and personality change = 25.2%. Discussion: We conclude that depression, suicidality (i.e., suicidal ideation, intent, or planning), and anxiety were not considered to be clinical features of TES during the 20th century. The present review supports the decision of the consensus group to remove mood and anxiety disorders, and suicidality, from the new 2021 consensus core diagnostic criteria for TES. More research is needed to determine if anger dyscontrol is a core feature of TES with a clear clinicopathological association. The present findings, combined with a recently published large clinicopathological association study, suggest that mood and anxiety disorders are not characteristic of TES and they are not associated with chronic traumatic encephalopathy neuropathologic change.