Nb Doping Induced the Formation of Protective Layer to Improve the Stability of Fe-Ni3S2 for Seawater Electrolysis.

The seawater electrolysis to produce hydrogen is a significant topic on alleviating the energy crisis. Here, the Fe, Nb-Ni3S2 catalyst is prepared by metal-doping strategy, and it shows high oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity in alkaline medium, and only needs 1.491 V to deliver a current density of 100 mA cm-2 in simulated seawater. Using Fe, Nb-Ni3S2 as a bifunctional catalyst, the two-electrode electrolyzer only requires a voltage of 1.751 V (without impedance compensation) to drive the current density of 50 mA cm-2, and can run over 150 h stably in the simulated seawater. Importantly, In situ Raman test demonstrates that the outstanding performance of Fe, Nb-Ni3S2 in simulated seawater is ascribed to the in situ formed sulfate protective layer induced by Nb doping, which can effectively inhibit the corrosion of chloride ion, while the protective layer is absent for Fe-Ni3S2. The stable operation of simulated seawater electrolysis under industrial current density further confirms the stability improvement mechanism of forming protective layer. In short, this study provides a new strategy of using Nb dopants inducing the formation of protective layer to enhance the stability of seawater electrolysis.

Polypyrrole deposited on the core-shell structured nitrogen-doped porous carbon@Ag-MOF for signal amplification detection of chloride ions.

An electrochemical platform for signal amplification probing chloride ions (Cl-) is constructed by the composite integrating core-shell structured nitrogen-doped porous carbon@Ag-based metal-organic frameworks (NC@Ag-MOF) with polypyrrole (PPy). It is based on the signal of solid-state AgCl derived from Ag-MOF, since both NC and PPy have good electrical conductivity and promote the electron transport capacity of solid-state AgCl. NC@Ag-MOF was firstly synthesized with NC as the scaffold and then, PPy was anchored on NC@Ag-MOF by chemical polymerization. The composite NC@Ag-MOF-PPy was utilized to modify the electrode, which exhibited a higher peak current and lower peak potential during Ag oxidation compared with those of Ag-MOF and NC@Ag-MOF-modified electrodes. More importantly, in the coexistence of chloride (Cl-) ions in solution, the NC@Ag-MOF-PPy-modified electrode displayed a fairly stable and sharp peak of solid-state AgCl with the peak potentials gradually approaching zero, which might effectively overcome the background interference caused by electroactive substances. The oxidation peak currents of solid-state AgCl increased linearly with the concentration of  Cl- ions in a broad range of 0.15 µM-40 mM and 40-250 mM, with detection limits of 0.10 µM and 40 mM, respectively. The practical applicability for Cl- ions determination was demonstrated using human serum and urine samples. The results suggest that NC@Ag-MOF-PPy composite could be a promising candidate for the construction of the electrochemical sensor.

Factors Influencing Chloride Ion Diffusion in Reinforced Concrete Structures.

Reinforced concrete structures are prone to the corrosion of steel bars when exposed to chloride-rich environments, which can severely impact their durability. To address this issue, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing chloride ion diffusion in concrete is essential. This paper provides a summary of recent domestic and foreign research on chloride ion transport in concrete, focusing on six key factors: water-binder ratio, additive content, crack width, ambient temperature, relative humidity, and dry-wet cycles. The findings show that the diffusion coefficient of chloride ions in concrete increases with a higher water-binder ratio and decreases with increased additive content. Additionally, wider cracks result in a greater diffusion of chloride ions. The permeability resistance of concrete to chloride ions decreases with rising temperature and humidity, and dry-wet cycles further accelerate the diffusion of chloride ions. The article concludes by discussing various anti-corrosion measures, such as the use of corrosion inhibitors, surface coatings, and electrochemical treatments, to ensure the longevity of the structure. Finally, directions for future research are proposed.

Effect of chloride ions on persulfate/UV-C advanced oxidation of an alcohol ethoxylate (Brij 30).

In the present study, the effect of chloride ions on the oxidative degradation of an alcohol ethoxylate (Brij 30) by persulfate (PS)/UV-C was experimentally explored using Brij 30 aqueous solution (BAS) and a domestic wastewater treatment plant effluent spiked with Brij 30. Brij 30 degradation occurred rapidly during the early stages of oxidation without affecting the water/wastewater matrix. Mineralization of intermediates of Brij 30 degradation markedly influenced by presence of chloride ions. Chloride ions at concentrations up to 50 mg/L accelerated the mineralization through reactions involving reactive chlorine species, which reduced the sink of SO4·- by Cl- scavenging at both initial pH of 6.0 and 3.0 in the case of BAS. The fastest mineralization was achieved under acidic conditions. The WWTP effluent matrix significantly influenced mineralization efficacy of the intermediates. Co-existence of HCO 3 - and Cl- anions accelerated the mineralization of degradation products. Organic matter originating from the WWTP effluent itself had an adverse effect on the mineralization rate. The positive effects of organic and inorganic components present in the WWTP effluent were ranked in the following order of increasing influence: (Organic matter originating from the effluent + Cl- + HCO 3 - ) < (Cl-) < (Cl- + HCO 3 - ).

Chloride Ions-Responsive Intelligent Coatings for the Active Protection of Degradable Biomedical Mg Alloys.

In this work, the hydroxyapatite (HA) microspheres are utilized as carriers for 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) inhibitors with a sodium alginate-silver nitrate layer (Ag-SA) added to confer chloride-responsive properties. These 8-HQ@Ag-SA-HA microspheres are subsequently integrated into poly(lactic acid) (PLA) coatings to produce biocompatible coatings. The resulting 8-HQ@Ag-SA-HA microsphere exhibits a spherical structure with a diameter of 3.16 µm. Thermogravimetric analysis indicates that the encapsulated 8-HQ inhibitors are approximately 11.83 wt %. Furthermore, the incorporation of these microspheres fills the micropores within the PLA coating, leading to a denser coating surface, enhanced wettability (contact angle value = 88°), and improved adhesion strength, thereby reinforcing the physical barrier effect. Corrosion tests reveal that the coatings exhibit increased resistance to corrosion in simulated body fluid (SBF) solutions. The released 8-HQ inhibitors in response to chloride ions form a protective layer of Mg(HQ)2, providing the coatings with self-healing properties and ensuring their durability in the SBF environment. Additionally, the cell test demonstrates a significant presence of MG-63 cells, accompanied by a low hemolysis rate of 3.81%, confirming the exceptional biocompatibility of the coatings. These findings offer valuable insights into the development of stimuli-responsive biocompatible coatings for effectively protecting Mg alloys.

Chloride ions in health and disease.

Chloride is a key anion involved in cellular physiology by regulating its homeostasis and rheostatic processes. Changes in cellular Cl- concentration result in differential regulation of cellular functions such as transcription and translation, post-translation modifications, cell cycle and proliferation, cell volume, and pH levels. In intracellular compartments, Cl- modulates the function of lysosomes, mitochondria, endosomes, phagosomes, the nucleus, and the endoplasmic reticulum. In extracellular fluid (ECF), Cl- is present in blood/plasma and interstitial fluid compartments. A reduction in Cl- levels in ECF can result in cell volume contraction. Cl- is the key physiological anion and is a principal compensatory ion for the movement of the major cations such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+. Over the past 25 years, we have increased our understanding of cellular signaling mediated by Cl-, which has helped in understanding the molecular and metabolic changes observed in pathologies with altered Cl- levels. Here, we review the concentration of Cl- in various organs and cellular compartments, ion channels responsible for its transportation, and recent information on its physiological roles.

Synchrony in Networks of Type 2 Interneurons Is More Robust to Noise with Hyperpolarizing Inhibition Compared to Shunting Inhibition in Both the Stochastic Population Oscillator and the Coupled Oscillator Regimes.

Synchronization in the gamma band (25-150 Hz) is mediated by PV+ inhibitory interneurons, and evidence is accumulating for the essential role of gamma oscillations in cognition. Oscillations can arise in inhibitory networks via synaptic interactions between individual oscillatory neurons (mean-driven) or via strong recurrent inhibition that destabilizes the stationary background firing rate in the fluctuation-driven balanced state, causing an oscillation in the population firing rate. Previous theoretical work focused on model neurons with Hodgkin's Type 1 excitability (integrators) connected by current-based synapses. Here we show that networks comprised of simple Type 2 oscillators (resonators) exhibit a supercritical Hopf bifurcation between synchrony and asynchrony and a gradual transition via cycle skipping from coupled oscillators to stochastic population oscillator (SPO), as previously shown for Type 1. We extended our analysis to homogeneous networks with conductance rather than current based synapses and found that networks with hyperpolarizing inhibitory synapses were more robust to noise than those with shunting synapses, both in the coupled oscillator and SPO regime. Assuming that reversal potentials are uniformly distributed between shunting and hyperpolarized values, as observed in one experimental study, converting synapses to purely hyperpolarizing favored synchrony in all cases, whereas conversion to purely shunting synapses made synchrony less robust except at very high conductance strengths. In mature neurons the synaptic reversal potential is controlled by chloride cotransporters that control the intracellular concentrations of chloride and bicarbonate ions, suggesting these transporters as a potential therapeutic target to enhance gamma synchrony and cognition.

Di-chlorido-(4,7-dimeth-oxy-1,10-phenanthroline-κ2N,N')zinc(II).

In the title complex, [ZnCl2(C14H12N2O2)], the ZnII atom is located on a twofold rotation axis and is fourfold coordinated by two chlorido ligands and a bidentate 4,7-meth-oxy-1,10-phenanthroline ligand in a distorted tetra-hedral environment. Weak π-π stacking inter-actions between adjacent 4,7-dimeth-oxy-1,10-phenanthroline rings [centroid-to-centroid distances = 3.5969 (11) and 3.7738 (11) Å] contribute to the alignment of the complexes in layers parallel to (01).

Effective chloride ion resistance of aluminum powder through interface electric field designing.

Pure aluminium (Al) powder is widely used in aerospace fields as fuel while its corrosion mechanisms and anti-corrosion strategies are not thoroughly studied. Herein, corrosion mechanisms of Al nanoparticles are revealed by density functional theory (DFT) and experiments. Moreover, by utilizing the behaviour of ions moving in the electric field, an interfacial electric field is designed to endow spherical aluminium powder (sAl) with high anti-corrosion for chloride ions (Cl-). Because TiO2 presents lower electrostatic potential than Al2O3 which is on the surface of sAl, the prepared core@shell structural material (sAl@TiO2) holds an interfacial electric field and its direction is from TiO2 to Al2O3. The electric field repels the Cl- adsorption on the surface of sAl@TiO2, bringing about superior Cl- anti-corrosion.

Preparation of Reactive Indicator Papers Based on Silver-Containing Nanocomposites for the Analysis of Chloride Ions.

In recent decades, metal-containing nanocomposites have attracted considerable attention from researchers. In this work, for the first time, a detailed analysis of the preparation of reactive indicator papers (RIPs) based on silver-containing nanocomposites derived from silver fumarate was carried out. Thermolysis products are silver-containing nanocomposites containing silver nanoparticles uniformly distributed in a stabilizing carbon matrix. The study of the optical properties of silver-containing nanocomposites made it possible to outline the prospects for their application in chemical analysis. RIPs were made by impregnating a cellulose carrier with synthesized silver fumarate-derived nanocomposites, which change their color when interacting with chlorine vapor. This made it possible to propose a method for the determination of chloride ions with preliminary oxidation to molecular chlorine, which is then separated from the solution by gas extraction. The subsequent detection of the active zone of RIPs using colorimetry makes it possible to identify mathematical dependences of color coordinates on the concentration of chloride ions. The red (R) color coordinate in the RGB (red-green-blue) system was chosen as the most sensitive and promising analytical signal. Calibration plots of exponential and linear form and their equations are presented. The limit of detection is 0.036 mg/L, the limits of quantification are 0.15-2.4 mg/L, and the time of a single determination is 25 min. The prospects of the developed technique have been successfully shown in the example of the analysis of the natural waters of the Don River, pharmaceuticals, and food products.

Cl- induces endothelium-dependent mesenteric arteriolar vasorelaxation through the NKCC1/TRPV4/NCX axis.

AIMS: Although absorbed NaCl increases intestinal blood flow to facilitate absorption and transportation, it is unclear if it can directly mediate mesenteric arterial relaxation. We aimed to investigate and test our hypothesis that Cl- induces mesenteric arterial vasorelaxation via endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH). MAIN METHODS: We used wire myograph to study NaCl-induced vasorelaxation of mesenteric arteries isolated from mice. Cl-, Ca2+ and K+ imaging was performed in human vascular endothelial cells pre-treated with pharmacological agents. KEY FINDINGS: The Cl- concentration-dependently induced vasorelaxation of mesenteric arteries likely through EDH. The Cl--induced vasorelaxation was attenuated in TRPV4 KO mice and inhibited by selective blockers of Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) (bumetanide, 10 µM), transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) (RN-1734, 40 µM), and small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (SKCa) (apamin, 3 µM)/ intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (IKCa) (TRAM-34, 10 µM) and myoendothelial gap junction (18α-glycyrrhetinic acid, 10 µM), but enhanced by a selective activator of IKCa/SKCa (SKA-31, 0.3 µM). Cl- decreased intracellular K+ concentrations in endothelial cells, which was reversed by apamin (200 nM) plus TRAM-34 (500 nM). Extracellular Cl- raised intracellular Cl- concentrations in endothelial cells, which was attenuated by bumetanide (10 µM). Finally, Cl- induced a transient Ca2+ signaling via TRPV4 in endothelial cells, which became sustained when the Ca2+ exit mode of Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) was blocked. SIGNIFICANCE: Cl- induces a pure EDH-mediated vasorelaxation of mesenteric arteries through activation of endothelial NKCC1/TRPV4/NCX axis. We have provided a novel insight into the role of Cl--induced vasorelaxation via EDH mechanism.

Comprehensive effect of water matrix on catalytic ozonation of chloride contained saline wastewater.

Chloride ion (Cl-) is one of the most common anions in wastewater and saline wastewater, but its elusive effects on organics degradation are not clear yet in many cases. In this paper, the effect of Cl- on organic compounds degradation is intensively studied in catalytic ozonation of different water matrix. It was found that the effect of Cl- is almost completely reflected by transforming ·OH to reactive chlorine species (RCS), which is simultaneously competitive with organics degradation. The competition between organics and Cl- for ·OH directly determines the ratio of their consumption rate of ·OH, which depends on their concentration and reactivity with ·OH. Especially, the concentration of organics and solution pH may change greatly during organics degradation process, which will correspondingly influence the transformation rate of ·OH to RCS. Therefore, the effect of Cl- on organics degradation is not immutable, and may dynamically change. As the reaction product between Cl- and ·OH, RCS was also expected to affect the degradation of organics. But we found that Cl· had no significant contribution to the degradation of organics in catalytic ozonation, which may due to its reaction with ozone. Catalytic ozonation of a series of benzoic acid (BA) with different substituents in chloride contained wastewater was also investigated, and the results showed that the electron-donating substituents can weaken the inhibition of Cl- on BAs degradation, because they increase the reactivity of organics with ·OH, O3 and RCS.

Metallographic Mechanism of Embrittlement of 15 µm Ultrafine Quaternary Silver Alloy Bonding Wire in Chloride Ions Environment.

Chloride ions contained in the sealing compound currently used in the electronic packaging industry not only interact with intermetallic compounds but also have a serious impact on silver alloy wires. A 15 µm ultrafine quaternary silver-palladium-gold-platinum alloy wire was used in this study. The wire and its bonding were immersed in a 60 °C saturated sodium chloride solution (chlorination experiment), and the strength and elongation before and after chlorination were measured. Finally, the fracture surface and cross-section characteristics were observed using a scanning electron microscope and focused ion microscope. The results revealed that chloride ions invade the wire along the grain boundary, and chlorides have been generated inside the cracks to weaken the strength and elongation of the wire. In addition, chloride ions invade the interface of the wire bonding to erode the aluminum substrate after immersing it for enough long time, causing galvanic corrosion, which in turn causes the bonding joint to separate from the aluminum substrate.

Comparison of Standardized Methods for Determining the Diffusion Coefficient of Chloride in Concrete with Thermodynamic Model of Migration.

This research paper is the result of observations made during tests according to various standards carried out on behalf of industry. The article presents diffusion coefficient values calculated according to the thermodynamic migration model for twenty different concrete mixes and some selected mixes of the codified approaches known as ASTM 1202, NT BUILD 443, NT BUILD 492, ASTM 1556. The method used here, according to the thermodynamic model of migration, allows determination of the value of the diffusion coefficient after short studies of the migration of chloride ions into concrete and was described in earlier works by one of the authors. Unfortunately, when using standard methods, the values of diffusion coefficients differ significantly from each other. In each concrete, diffusion tests were carried out in the conditions of long-term natural diffusion to verify the values determined by standard methods and according to the thermodynamic model of migration. The analysis conducted for this research paper reveals that the chloride permeability test method according to the standard ASTM C1202-97 has an almost 2.8-fold greater dispersion of the obtained results compared to the thermodynamic model of migration. It was observed that the standard NT BUILD 492 has a 3.8-fold dispersion of results compared to the method with the thermodynamic model of migration. The most time-consuming method is the standard method NT BUILD 443. The largest 3.5-fold dispersion of values concerning the reference value are observed in that method. Moreover, a method based on a thermodynamic migration model seems to be the best option of all analyzed methods. It is a quite quick, but laborious, method that should be tested for a larger number of concrete mixes. A great advantage of this method is that it is promising for a wide range of concrete mixtures, both plain concrete and concrete with various additives and admixtures, as well as high-performance concrete.

Serum sodium ions and chloride ions associated with taxane-induced peripheral neuropathy in Chinese patients with early-stage breast cancer: A nation-wide multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Taxane-induced peripheral neuropathy (TIPN) is a debilitating adverse effect of cancer treatments with taxanes which may require a reduction or discontinuation chemotherapy and affect clinical and survival outcomes. A number of factors have contributed to the increasing prevalence of TIPN. Nonetheless, limited knowledge exists of potential prechemotherapy blood-based biochemical factors associated with TIPN development. METHODS: We recruited breast cancer patients at seven cancer institutions in China. Participants aged 18 years or older with stage I to III breast cancer who scheduled to undergo primary neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy with taxanes were eligible. Eligible patients underwent patient-reported neuropathy assessments using the EORTC-CIPN20 questionnaire. Patients completed the questionnaire before commencing treatment and after every cycle. For every patient, we selected the highest TIPN toxicity score for analysis since the first cycle. The posttreatment TIPN severity was compared with blood-based biochemical factors within 30 days before commencing treatment. Independent samples t tests, Mann-Whitney U tests and linear regression were used to identify blood-based and clinical associations with TIPN development. RESULTS: The study included 873 breast cancer participants who received paclitaxel, docetaxel or nanoparticle albumin-bound (nab)-paclitaxel. In the whole cohort, factors associated with higher TIPN toxicity scores were higher cumulative chemotherapy dose (ß = 0.005; 95% CI, 0.004 to 0.006; P < .001), lower sodium ions (ß = -0.24; 95% CI, -0.39 to -0.09; P = .002) and higher chloride ions (ß = 0.30; 95% CI, 0.16 to 0.44; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that breast cancer patients with a higher cumulative chemotherapy dose, lower pretreatment sodium ions, and higher pretreatment chloride ions receiving taxanes should receive closer monitoring to mitigate the development of short-term and long-term TIPN.

Advances in the development of biodegradable coronary stents: A translational perspective.

Implantation of cardiovascular stents is an important therapeutic method to treat coronary artery diseases. Bare-metal and drug-eluting stents show promising clinical outcomes, however, their permanent presence may create complications. In recent years, numerous preclinical and clinical trials have evaluated the properties of bioresorbable stents, including polymer and magnesium-based stents. Three-dimensional (3D) printed-shape-memory polymeric materials enable the self-deployment of stents and provide a novel approach for individualized treatment. Novel bioresorbable metallic stents such as iron- and zinc-based stents have also been investigated and refined. However, the development of novel bioresorbable stents accompanied by clinical translation remains time-consuming and challenging. This review comprehensively summarizes the development of bioresorbable stents based on their preclinical/clinical trials and highlights translational research as well as novel technologies for stents (e.g., bioresorbable electronic stents integrated with biosensors). These findings are expected to inspire the design of novel stents and optimization approaches to improve the efficacy of treatments for cardiovascular diseases.

Assessment of the Corrosion of Steel Embedded in an Alkali-Activated Hybrid Concrete Exposed to Chlorides.

Hybrid alkali-activated cements (HAACs), also known as cements with high percentages of alkali-activated supplementary materials, are alternative cements that combine the advantages of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and alkali-activated systems. These cements are composed of a minimum of 70% precursor material and a maximum of 30% OPC mixed with an alkaline activator. This article evaluates the corrosion performance of reinforced HAAC concrete based on fly ash (FA) under exposure to chlorides (FA/OPC, 80/20). Its performance is compared with that of a binary alkali-activated cement (AAC) based on FA and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) (FA/GBFS, 80/20). The tests performed on the concrete matrix correspond to the compressive strength and permeability to chloride ions. Using accelerated corrosion techniques (impressed voltage) and electrochemical tests after immersion in 3.5% NaCl, the progress of the corrosive process in the reinforcing steel is evaluated. The FA/OPC exhibit a better corrosion performance than the FA/GBFS concrete. At the end of the exposure to chlorides, the FA/OPC hybrid concrete presents the best performance, with a 49% lower corrosion rate than that of the FA/GBFS. Note that according to the polarization curves, the values of the proportionality constant B in the alkaline-activated concretes differ from the values recommended for concrete based on OPC.

Mechanical Strength and Chloride Ions' Penetration of Alkali-Activated Concretes (AAC) with Blended Precursor.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the properties of hardened alkali-activated concrete, which is considered an eco-friendly alternative to Portland cement concrete. In this paper, the precursors for alkali-activated concrete preparations are blends of fly ash and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag in three slag proportions: 5%, 20%, and 35%, expressed as a percentage of fly ash mass. Thus, three concretes were designed and cast, denominated as AAC5, AAC20, and AAC35. Their physical and mechanical characteristics were investigated at 28 and 180 days, as well as their properties of chloride ion transport. The modified NT BUILD 492 migration test was applied to determine the chloride ions' penetration of the alkali-activated concretes. Improvement of mechanical strength and resistance to chloride aggression was observed with ground-granulated blast-furnace slag content increase in the compositions of the tested concretes. Mercury intrusion porosimetry tests provided insight into the open pore structures of concretes. A significant decrease in the total pore volume of the concrete and a change in the nature of the pore diameter distribution due to the addition of ground granulated blast furnace slag were demonstrated.

Binding and functions of the two chloride ions in the oxygen-evolving center of photosystem II.

Light-driven water oxidation in photosynthesis occurs at the oxygen-evolving center (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII). Chloride ions (Cl-) are essential for oxygen evolution by PSII, and two Cl- ions have been found to specifically bind near the Mn4CaO5 cluster in the OEC. The retention of these Cl- ions within the OEC is critically supported by some of the membrane-extrinsic subunits of PSII. The functions of these two Cl- ions and the mechanisms of their retention both remain to be fully elucidated. However, intensive studies performed recently have advanced our understanding of the functions of these Cl- ions, and PSII structures from various species have been reported, aiding the interpretation of previous findings regarding Cl- retention by extrinsic subunits. In this review, we summarize the findings to date on the roles of the two Cl- ions bound within the OEC. Additionally, together with a short summary of the functions of PSII membrane-extrinsic subunits, we discuss the mechanisms of Cl- retention by these extrinsic subunits.

Photochemical vapor generation for germanium: synergistic effect from cobalt/chloride ions and air-liquid interfaces.

Photochemical vapor generation (PVG) of germanium (Ge) was first reported in this work. The synergistic effect from cobalt/chloride ions and air-liquid interfaces was found for the PVG of Ge. No obvious signal response was observed from the standard solution of Ge in 10% (v/v) formic acids (FAs) under UV irradiation. The addition of 300 mg L-1 of Co2+ and 30 mmol L-1 of Cl- resulted in enhanced photochemical reduction for Ge, and the introduction of air-liquid interfaces proceeding and succeeding the sample solution caused another 4.6 folds of enhancement in signal response of Ge. Under the selected condition, the limit of detection (LOD, 3σ, n = 11) was obtained to be 0.008 ng mL-1 with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP MS) measurement. A good precision, expressed as a relative standard deviation (RSD, n = 7) of 2.0%, was found from replicated measurements of 2 ng mL-1 of Ge. The generation efficiency was found to be no better than 9 ± 2%. The PVG mechanism of Ge was investigated in this work. The new finding is useful for understanding the principle of PVG, and further exploring the analytical and environmental application of PVG.