Driving performance of long-term users of sedating antidepressants and benzodiazepines.

OBJECTIVE: Using benzodiazepines and certain antidepressants is associated with an increased risk of motor vehicle crashes due to impaired driving skills. Hence, several countries prohibit people who use these drugs from driving. Traffic regulations for driving under the influence of these drugs are, however, largely based on single-dose studies with healthy participants. The effects of drugs on chronic users may be different because of potential development of tolerance or by adapting behavior. In this study, we test the effects of anti-depressants, hypnotics, or anxiolytics use on driving performance in patients who use these drugs for different durations and compare the effects to healthy controls' performance. METHODS: Sixty-six healthy controls and 82 medication users were recruited to perform four drives in a driving simulator. Patients were divided into groups that used anti-depressants, hypnotics, or anxiolytics, for shorter or longer than 3 years (i.e. LT3- or LT3+, respectively). The minimum term of use was 6 months. Driving behavior was measured in terms of longitudinal and lateral control (speed variability and Standard Deviation of Lateral Position: SDLP), brake reaction time, and time headway. Impaired driving performance was defined as performing similar to driving with a Blood Alcohol Concentration of 0.5‰ or higher, determined by means of non-inferiority analyses. RESULTS: Reaction time analyses revealed inconclusive findings in all groups. No significant performance differences between matched healthy controls, LT3- (n = 2), and LT3+ (n = 8) anxiolytics users were found. LT3+ antidepressants users (n = 12) did not perform inferior to their matched controls in terms of SDLP. LT3- hypnotics users (n = 6) showed more speed variability than their matched healthy controls, while this effect was not found for the LT3+ group (n = 14): the latter did not perform inferior to the healthy controls. Regarding Time Headway, no conclusions about the LT3- hypnotics group could be drawn, while the LT3+ group did not perform inferior compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The small number of anxiolytics users prohibits drawing conclusions about clinical relevance. Although many outcomes were inconclusive, there is evidence that some elements of complex driving performance may not be impaired (anymore) after using antidepressants or hypnotics longer than 3 years.

A systematic review of major evaluation metrics for simulator-based automatic assessment of driving after stroke.

Background: Simulator-based driving assessments (SA) have recently been used and studied for various purposes, particularly for post-stroke patients. Automating such assessment has potential benefits especially on reducing financial cost and time. Nevertheless, there currently exists no clear guideline on assessment techniques and metrics available for SA for post-stroke patients. Therefore, this systematic review is conducted to explore such techniques and establish guidelines for evaluation metrics. Objective: This review aims to find: (a) major evaluation metrics for automatic SA in post-stroke patients and (b) assessment inputs and techniques for such evaluation metrics. Methods: The study follows the PRISMA guideline. Systematic searches were performed on PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ACM Digital Library, and IEEE Xplore Digital Library for articles published from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2023. This review targeted journal articles written in English about automatic performance assessment of simulator-based driving by post-stroke patients. A narrative synthesis was provided for the included studies. Results: The review included six articles with a total of 239 participants. Across all of the included studies, we discovered 49 distinct assessment inputs. Threshold-based, machine-learning-based, and driving simulator calculation approaches are three primary types of assessment techniques and evaluation metrics identified in the review. Discussion: Most studies incorporated more than one type of input, indicating the importance of a comprehensive evaluation of driving abilities. Threshold-based techniques and metrics were the most commonly used in all studies, likely due to their simplicity. An existing relevant review also highlighted the limited number of studies in this area, underscoring the need for further research to establish the validity and effectiveness of simulator-based automatic assessment of driving (SAAD). Conclusions: More studies should be conducted on various aspects of SAAD to explore and validate this type of assessment.

Subjective memory concerns and car collisions: A cross-sectional cohort study among older Japanese drivers.

Background: A previous study suggested older drivers with subjective memory concerns (SMC) had increased odds of experiencing car collisions, but whether SMC in different contexts and the number of SMC applicable items change this association is unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the association between SMC and car collisions among older drivers in Japan. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted using data from a Japanese community-based cohort study. Participants were community-dwelling older adults aged ≥60 years. SMC was assessed using five questions: 1) "Do you feel you have more problems with memory than most?" 2) "Do you have any difficulty with your memory?" 3) "Do you forget where you have left things more than you used to?" 4) "Do you forget the names of close friends or relatives?" and 5) "Do other people find you forgetful?" Participants were asked about their experiences with car collisions during the previous two years. Results: A total of 13,137 older drivers (72.1 ± 5.5 years old, and 43.6 % female) were analyzed. Cochran-Armitage trend test showed that as the number of SMC applicable items increased, the percentage of the experiences of car collisions significantly increased (6.8 %-15.8 %, P < 0.001). Logistic regression models showed each SMC question was associated with an increased odds ratio (OR) of car collisions (OR 1.26 to 1.71, all P < 0.001) after adjusting for confounding factors. As the number of SMC applicable items increased, the OR of car collisions significantly increased (OR 1.19 to 2.28, all P < 0.05, P for trend <0.001). Conclusions: This cross-sectional study among community-dwelling older drivers in Japan suggested each SMC question and the number of applicable items were associated with car collisions. SMC may be a sign of increased risk of traffic incidents for older drivers.

Somatic Factors Predict On-Road Driving Skills in Older Drivers and Drivers with Mild Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND: On-road driving skills can be impaired in older drivers and drivers with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to different driving-relevant deficits. Among these deficits, somatic factors have received little attention so far. METHODS: In a prospective observational on-road driving study, we examined whether somatic factors can predict on-road driving skills in a mixed sample of healthy older drivers and drivers with MCI (n = 99) and whether the inclusion of age explains additional variance. Somatic factors included the number of prescribed drugs, visual acuity, peripheral visual field integrity, mobility of the cervical spine, and hearing impairment. A hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict on-road driving skills by adding the somatic factors in the first step and age in the second step. RESULTS: Results revealed that the combination of somatic factors significantly predicted on-road driving skills (R2adjusted = 0.439). The inclusion of age led to a significant increase of explained variance (R2adjusted = 0.466). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that somatic factors can accurately predict on-road driving skills in healthy older drivers and drivers with MCI. In addition, our results suggest that there is a significant but rather small effect of age beyond somatic changes.

Evaluating possible 'next day' impairment in insomnia patients administered an oral medicinal cannabis product by night: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

Cannabis and its major constituents, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), are being widely used to treat sleep disturbances. However, THC can cause acute cognitive and psychomotor impairment and there are concerns that driving and workplace safety might be compromised the day after evening use. Here, we examined possible 'next day' impairment following evening administration of a typical medicinal cannabis oil in adults with insomnia disorder, compared to matched placebo. This paper describes the secondary outcomes of a larger study investigating the effects of THC/CBD on insomnia disorder. Twenty adults [16 female; mean (SD) age, 46.1 (8.6) y] with physician-diagnosed insomnia who infrequently use cannabis completed two 24 h in-laboratory visits involving acute oral administration of combined 10 mg THC and 200 mg CBD ('THC/CBD') or placebo in a randomised, double-blind, crossover trial design. Outcome measures included 'next day' (≥9 h post-treatment) performance on cognitive and psychomotor function tasks, simulated driving performance, subjective drug effects, and mood. We found no differences in 'next day' performance on 27 out of 28 tests of cognitive and psychomotor function and simulated driving performance relative to placebo. THC/CBD produced a small decrease (-1.4%, p=.016, d=-0.6) in accuracy on the Stroop-Colour Task (easy/congruent) but not the Stroop-Word Task (hard/incongruent). THC/CBD also produced a small increase (+8.6, p=.042, d=0.3) in self-ratings of Sedated at 10 h post-treatment, but with no accompanying changes in subjective ratings of Alert or Sleepy (p's>0.05). In conclusion, we found a lack of notable 'next day' impairment to cognitive and psychomotor function and simulated driving performance following evening use of 10 mg oral THC, in combination with 200 mg CBD, in an insomnia population who infrequently use cannabis.

Impacts of information quantity and display formats on driving behaviors in a connected vehicle environment.

The emerging connected vehicle (CV) technologies facilitate the development of integrated advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs), with which various functions are coordinated in a comprehensive framework. However, challenges arise in enabling drivers to perceive important information with minimal distractions when multiple messages are simultaneously provided by integrated ADASs. To this end, this study introduces three types of human-machine interfaces (HMIs) for an integrated ADAS: 1) three messages using a visual display only, 2) four messages using a visual display only, and 3) three messages using visual plus auditory displays. Meanwhile, the differences in driving performance across three HMI types are examined to investigate the impacts of information quantity and display formats on driving behaviors. Additionally, variations in drivers' responses to the three HMI types are examined. Driving behaviors of 51 drivers with respect to three HMI types are investigated in eight field testing scenarios. These scenarios include warnings for rear-end collision, lateral collision, forward collision, lane-change, and curve speed, as well as notifications for emergency events downstream, the specified speed limit, and car-following behaviors. Results indicate that, compared to a visual display only, presenting three messages through visual and auditory displays enhances driving performance in four typical scenarios. Compared to the presentation of three messages, a visual display offering four messages improves driving performance in rear-end collision warning scenarios but diminishes the performance in lane-change scenarios. Additionally, the relationship between information quantity and display formats shown on HMIs and driving performance can be moderated by drivers' gender, occupation, driving experience, annual driving distance, and safety attitudes. Findings are indicative to designers in automotive industries in developing HMIs for future CVs.

Effects of mobile phone-related distraction on driving performance at roundabouts: Eye movements tracking perspective.

Modern road infrastructures are complex networks featuring various elements such as roads, bridges, intersections, and roundabouts, with advanced control systems. Roundabouts have gained prominence as a safer alternative to traditional intersections promoting smoother traffic flow and fewer collisions by guiding traffic in one direction, encouraging reduced speed, and minimizing conflict points.This study investigated driver behavior within roundabouts, focusing on gaze behavior, particularly the left-side mirror and window, under mobile phone distraction conditions. In addition, the effects of roundabout specifications (i.e., number of lanes and size of the central island) and the drivers' characteristics (i.e., driving experience) were examined.In total, 43 participants, aged 19-56 years including 30 males and 13 females, held a valid driving license, drove through a virtual simulated urban road containing four roundabouts, implemented in a static driving simulator, under baseline condition (no distraction) as well as mobile-induced distraction. Driving simulator data were collected and drivers' gaze direction and fixation on nine areas of interest were captured with an eye tracker. Results: showed that experienced drivers exhibit a more fixation on the left-side mirror and window and were less distracted. Moreover, the road environment, i.e., the number of cars and the roundabout size, significantly influenced the drivers' attention. As regards the driving performance, the number of infractions increased when the drivers diverted focus from the left side of the car. The outcomes of the present study might help to improve traffic safety at roundabouts.

The effect of breathing hypoxic gas (15% FIO2 ) on physiological and behavioral outcomes during simulated driving in healthy subjects.

Hypoxia is mainly caused by cardiopulmonary disease or high-altitude exposure. We used a driving simulator to investigate whether breathing hypoxic gas influences driving behaviors in healthy subjects. Fifty-two healthy subjects were recruited in this study, approved by the Science and Engineering Ethical Committee. During simulated driving experiments, driving behaviors, breathing frequency, oxygen saturation (SpO2 ), and heart rate variability (HRV) were analyzed. Each subject had four driving sessions; a 10-min practice and three 20-min randomized interventions: normoxic room air (21% FIO2 ) and medical air (21% FIO2 ) and hypoxic air (equal to 15% FIO2 ), analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA. Driving behaviors and HRV frequency domains showed no significant change. Heart rate (HR; p < 0.0001), standard deviation of the RR interval (SDRR; p = 0.03), short-term HRV (SD1; p < 0.0001), breathing rate (p = 0.01), and SpO2 (p < 0.0001) were all significantly different over the three gas interventions. Pairwise comparisons showed HR increased during hypoxic gas exposure compared to both normoxic interventions, while SDRR, SD1, breathing rate, and SpO2 were lower. Breathing hypoxic gas (15% FiO2 , equivalent to 2710 m altitude) may not have a significant impact on driving behavior in healthy subjects. Furthermore, HRV was negatively affected by hypoxic gas exposure while driving suggesting further research to investigate the impact of breathing hypoxic gas on driving performance for patients with autonomic dysfunction.

R2DRV: study protocol for longitudinal assessment of driving after mild TBI in young drivers.

BACKGROUND: Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and traffic-related injuries are two major public health problems disproportionately affecting young people. Young drivers, whose driving skills are still developing, are particularly vulnerable to impaired driving due to brain injuries. Despite this, there is a paucity of research on how mTBI impacts driving and when it is safe to return to drive after an mTBI. This paper describes the protocol of the study, R2DRV, Longitudinal Assessment of Driving After Mild TBI in Young Drivers, which examines the trajectory of simulated driving performance and self-reported driving behaviors from acutely post-injury to symptom resolution among young drivers with mTBI compared to matched healthy drivers. Additionally, this study investigates the associations of acute post-injury neurocognitive function and cognitive load with driving among young drivers with and without mTBI. METHODS: A total of 200 young drivers (ages 16 to 24) are enrolled from two study sites, including 100 (50 per site) with a physician-confirmed isolated mTBI, along with 100 (50 per site) healthy drivers without a history of TBI matched 1:1 for age, sex, driving experience, and athlete status. The study assesses primary driving outcomes using two approaches: (1) high-fidelity driving simulators to evaluate driving performance across four experimental study conditions at multiple time points (within 96 h of injury and weekly until symptom resolution or 8 weeks post-injury); (2) daily self-report surveys on real-world driving behaviors completed by all participants. DISCUSSION: This study will fill critical knowledge gaps by longitudinally assessing driving performance and behaviors in young drivers with mTBI, as compared to matched healthy drivers, from acutely post-injury to symptom resolution. The research strategy enables evaluating how increased cognitive load may exacerbate the effects of mTBI on driving, and how post-mTBI neurocognitive deficits may impact the driving ability of young drivers. Findings will be shared through scientific conferences, peer-reviewed journals, and media outreach to care providers and the public.

Risk assessment of driver performance in the oil and gas transportation industry: Analyzing the relationship between driver vigilance, attention, reaction time, and safe driving practices.

The increasing use of road traffic for land transportation has resulted in numerous road accidents and casualties, including those involving oil and gas tanker vehicles. Despite this, little empirical research has been conducted on the factors influencing tanker drivers' performance. This study aims to address this knowledge gap, particularly in the energy transportation industry, by examining the driving performance factors that affect tanker drivers and incorporating risk assessment measures. The model variables were identified from the literature and used to develop a survey questionnaire for the study. A total of 307 surveys were collected from Malaysian oil and gas tanker drivers, and the driving performance factors were contextually adjusted using the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) approach. The driving performance model was developed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The EFA results categorized driving performance into two constructs: 1) drivers' reaction time with ß = 0.320 and 2) attention and vigilance with ß value = 0.749. The proposed model provided full insight into how drivers' reaction time, attention, and vigilance impact drivers' performance in this sector, which can help identify potential risks and prevent accidents. The findings are significant in understanding the factors that affect oil and gas drivers' performance and can aid in enhancing oil and gas transportation management by including effective risk assessment measures to prevent fatal crashes.

A Randomized, Phase 3, Double-Blind, Crossover Comparison of Multilayer, Extended-Release Methylphenidate (PRC-063), and Lisdexamfetamine in the Driving Performance of Young Adults With ADHD.

OBJECTIVE: To compare PRC-063 (multilayer-release methylphenidate) and lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX) on the driving performance of young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. METHOD: Following up to 21 days of each treatment in each treatment course (PRC-063/LDX or LDX/PRC-063), subjects completed a 15-hour driving simulator laboratory assessment. The primary outcome measure was the Tactical Driving Quotient (TDQ) and the Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement (CGI-I) scale was a secondary outcome measure. RESULTS: Forty-four subjects completed the study. PRC-063 and LDX had equivalent effects on driving performance through a 15-hour time period (least square mean difference -0.3 [standard error 1.08], 95% confidence interval [-2.4, 1.8], p = .793). Consistent improvement in CGI-I was observed. The incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events was similar for each treatment sequence. CONCLUSIONS: PRC-063 and LDX had comparable effects on driving performance, from 1 through 15 hours, the last time point measured.

Modulating Driver Alertness via Ambient Olfactory Stimulation: A Wearable Electroencephalography Study.

Poor alertness levels and related changes in cognitive efficiency are common when performing monotonous tasks such as extended driving. Recent studies have investigated driver alertness decrement and possible strategies for modulating alertness with the goal of improving reaction times to safety critical events. However, most studies rely on subjective measures in assessing alertness changes, while the use of olfactory stimuli, which are known to be strong modulators of cognitive states, has not been commensurately explored in driving alertness settings. To address this gap, in the present study we investigated the effectiveness of olfactory stimuli in modulating the alertness state of drivers and explored the utility of electroencephalography (EEG) in developing objective brain-based tools for assessing the resulting changes in cortical activity. Olfactory stimulation induced a significant differential effect on braking reaction time. The corresponding effect to the cortical activity was characterized using EEG-derived metrics and the devised machine learning framework yielded a high discriminating accuracy (92.1%). Furthermore, neural activity in the alpha frequency band was found to be significantly associated with the observed drivers' behavioral changes. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of olfactory stimuli to modulate the alertness state and the efficiency of EEG in objectively assessing the resulting cognitive changes.

A semi-naturalistic open-label study examining the effect of prescribed medical cannabis use on simulated driving performance.

BACKGROUND: Despite increasing medical cannabis use, research has yet to establish whether and to what extent products containing delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impact driving performance among patients. Stable doses of prescribed cannabinoid products during long-term treatment may alleviate clinical symptoms affecting cognitive and psychomotor performance. AIM: To examine the effects of open-label prescribed medical cannabis use on simulated driving performance among patients. METHODS: In a semi-naturalistic laboratory study, 40 adults (55% male) aged between 23 and 80 years, consumed their own prescribed medical cannabis product. Driving performance outcomes including standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP), the standard deviation of speed (SDS), mean speed and steering variability were evaluated using the Forum8 driving simulator at baseline (pre-dosing), 2.5 h and 5 -h (post-dosing). Perceived driving effort (PDE) was self-reported after each drive. Oral fluid and whole blood samples were collected at multiple timepoints and analysed for THC via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: A significant main effect of time was observed for mean speed (p = 0.014) and PDE (p = 0.020), with patients displaying modest stabilisation of vehicle control, increased adherence to speed limits and reductions in PDE post-dosing, relative to baseline. SDLP (p = 0.015) and PDE (p = 0.043) were elevated for those who consumed oil relative to flower-based products. Detectable THC concentrations were observed in oral fluid at 6-h post-dosing (range = 0-24 ng/mL). CONCLUSIONS: This semi-naturalistic study suggests that the consumption of medical cannabis containing THC (1.13-39.18 mg/dose) has a negligible impact on driving performance when used as prescribed.

Residual effects of medications for sleep disorders on driving performance: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials: NMA driving and hypnotics.

Sleep medications often carry residual effects potentially affecting driving safety, warranting network meta-analysis (NMA). PubMed/EMBASE/TRID/Clinicaltrials.gov/WHO-ICTRP/WebOfScience were inquired for randomized controlled trials of hypnotic driving studies in persons with insomnia and healthy subjects up to 05/28/2023, considering the vehicle's standard deviation of lateral position - SDLP (Standardized Mean Difference/SMD) and driving impairment rates on the first morning (co-primary outcomes) and endpoint. Risk-of-bias, global/local inconsistencies were measured, and CINeMA was used to assess the confidence in the evidence. Of 4,805 identified records, 26 cross-over RCTs were included in the systematic review, of which 22 entered the NMA, focusing on healthy subjects only. After a single administration, most molecules paralleled the placebo, outperforming zopiclone regarding SDLP. In contrast, ramelteon 8 mg, daridorexant 100 mg, zolpidem 10 mg bedtime, zolpidem middle-of-the-night 10 mg and 20 mg, mirtazapine 15-30 mg, and triazolam 0.5 mg performed significantly worse than placebo. Lemborexant 2.5-5 mg, suvorexant 15-20 mg, and zolpidem 3.5 mg middle-of-the-night associated with lower impairment than zopiclone. Repeated administration (maximum follow-up time of ten days) caused fewer residual effects than acute ones, except for flurazepam. Heterogeneity and inconsistency were negligible. Confidence in the evidence was low/very low. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the main analyses. Most FDA-approved hypnotics overlapped placebo at in-label doses, outperforming zopiclone. Repeated administration for 15 days or less reduced residual effects, warranting further research on the matter.

Investigating the impact of HMI on drivers' merging performance in intelligent connected vehicle environment.

Intelligent Connected Vehicle (ICV) is considered one of the most promising active safety technologies to address current transportation challenges. Human-Machine Interface (HMI) plays a vital role in enhancing user driving experience with ICV technology. However, in an ICV environment, drivers may exhibit excessive reliance on HMI, resulting in diminished proactive observation and analysis of the road environment, and subsequently leading to a potential decrease in drivers' situational awareness. This reduced situational awareness may consequently lead to a decline in their overall engagement in driving tasks. Therefore, to comprehensively investigate the impact of HMI on driver performance in various ICV environments, this study incorporates three distinct HMI systems: Control group, Warning group, and Guidance group. The Control group provides basic information, the Warning group adds front vehicle icon and real-time headway information, while the Guidance group further includes speed and voice guidance features. Additionally, the study considers three types of mainline vehicle gaps, namely, 30 m, 20 m, and 15 m. Through our self-developed ICV testing platform, we conducted driving simulation experiments on 43 participants in a freeway interchange merging area. The findings reveal that, drivers in the Guidance group exhibited explicit acceleration while driving on the ramp. Drivers in the Guidance and Warning groups demonstrated smoother speed change trends and lower mean longitudinal acceleration upon entering the acceleration lane compared to the Control group, indicating a preference for more cautious driving strategies. During the pre-merging section, drivers in the Warning group demonstrated a more cautious and smooth longitudinal acceleration. The Guidance group's HMI system assisted drivers in better speed control during the post-merging section. Differences in mainline vehicle gaps did not significantly impact the merging positions of participants across the three HMI groups. Drivers in the Guidance group merged closest to the left side of the taper section, while the Control group merged farthest. The research findings offer valuable insights for developing dynamic human-machine interfaces tailored to specific driving scenarios in the environment of ICVs. Future research should investigate the effects of various HMIs on driver safety, workload, energy efficiency, and overall driving experience. Conducting real-world tests will further validate the findings obtained from driving simulators.

A Comparison of Night Hazard Detection between Younger and Older Drivers under Driving Simulation and Real-World Conditions.

''Using eye-tracking technology, this study examined hazard detection at night. Using a 2 (younger versus older) x 2 (simulator versus on road) repeated-measures mixed design, 16 older adults and 17 younger adults drove their own vehicle and on a driving simulator under nighttime conditions wearing eye tracking technology. Both driving conditions had three roadway hazards of pedestrians looking at their cell phone while posed to cross the roadway. Pupil glances were recorded using outcome measures of total fixation duration, number of fixations, and time to first fixation. Results showed older adults detected hazards similarly to younger adults, especially during on-road performance. Night hazard detection was similar across driving conditions except for time to first fixation, which was faster on-road for both age groups. Results support potential use of driving simulators as a proxy for on-road with night driving needed for research and practice.

Individual differences, ADHD diagnosis, and driving performance: effects of traffic density and distraction type.

The present study examined the impact of individual differences, attention, and memory deficits on distracted driving. Drivers with ADHD are more susceptible to distraction which results in more frequent collisions, violations, and licence suspensions. Consequently, the present investigation had 36 participants complete preliminary questionnaires, memory tasks, workload indices, and four, 4-min simulated driving scenarios to evaluate such impact. It was hypothesised ADHD diagnosis, type of cellular distraction, and traffic density would each differentially and substantively impact driving performance. Results indicated traffic density and distraction type significantly affected the objective driving facets measured, as well as subjective and secondary task performance. ADHD diagnosis directly impacted secondary task performance. Results further showed significant interactions between distraction type and traffic density on both brake pressure and steering wheel angle negatively impacting lateral and horizontal vehicle control. Altogether, these findings provide substantial empirical evidence for the deleterious effect of cellphone use on driving performance.Practitioner summary: This study examined how ADHD diagnosis, traffic density, and distraction type affect driver behaviour. Participants completed driving behaviour questionnaires, memory tasks, workload indices, and driving scenarios. Results showed that ADHD diagnosis impacted secondary task performance, while traffic and distractions significantly impacted driving performance as well secondary task performance and workload.

Influence of distracted driving of online car-hailing drivers on overall driving performance.

The distraction affects driving performance and induces serious safety issues. To better understand distracted driving, this study examines the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance. This paper analyzes the distraction behavior (mobile phone use, entertainment activities, and passenger interference) under three driving tasks. The statistical results show that viewing or sending messages is common during driving. Smoking, phone calls, and talking to passengers are evident in cruising, ride request and drop-off, respectively. Then, overall driving performance is proposed based on velocity, longitudinal acceleration (longacc) and yaw_rate. It is divided into three categories, high, medium, and low, by k-means algorithms. The average speed increases from low to high performance; however, the longacc and yaw_rate decrease. Finally, the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance is analyzed using C4.5 algorithm. The result shows that when time is peak, the probability of high performance (HP) is higher than off-peak. The possibility of HP increases with the increase of duration; the number of, talking to passengers, listening to music or radio, eating; the duration of, viewing or sending messages, phone calls; but reduces with the increase of the number of phone calls. These findings provide theoretical support for driving performance evaluation.

Potential risk of driving performance under combined conditions of taking second-generation antihistamines and attending calls using a hands-free function.

OBJECTIVE: Although second-generation antihistamines have reduced sedation-related side effects compared to first-generation antihistamines, sedation may still impair motor vehicle driving performance. Moreover, receiving/making phone calls using a hands-free function can negatively affect driving performance. Therefore, herein, driving performance was evaluated using a driving simulator to gain insights into the hazards of driving by combining second-generation antihistamines and a calling task, i.e., simulated calls using a hands-free function. METHODS: In this study, 20 subjects drove in a driving simulator in the absence or presence of a calling task while taking or not taking second-generation antihistamines. Driving performances for nonemergency and emergency events were determined, and a comparative analysis of intra-individual variability when taking and not taking second-generation antihistamines was conducted. RESULTS: First, when nonemergency and emergency were examined in the absence of a calling task, no significant difference in driving performance was observed between taking and not taking second-generation antihistamines. Next, when the nonemergency event was examined in the presence of a calling task, no significant difference in driving performance was observed between taking and not taking second-generation antihistamines. However, when the emergency event was examined in the presence of a calling task, a significant difference in driving performance was observed between taking and not taking second-generation antihistamines, thus resulting in reduced driving performance. CONCLUSIONS: The new system with added calling tasks allowed the extraction of the potential risks of driving performance of second-generation antihistamines that may have been previously overlooked. This study suggests that pharmacists and other healthcare professionals may need to instruct people taking any second-generation antihistamine to focus on driving and not on subtasks that require cognitive load such as talking while driving.

Post Take-Over Performance Varies in Drivers of Automated and Connected Vehicle Technology in Near-Miss Scenarios.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the impact of monitoring instructions when using an automated driving system (ADS) and road obstructions on post take-over performance in near-miss scenarios. BACKGROUND: Past research indicates partial ADS reduces the driver's situation awareness and degrades post take-over performance. Connected vehicle technology may alert drivers to impending hazards in time to safely avoid near-miss events. METHOD: Forty-eight licensed drivers using ADS were randomly assigned to either the active driving or passive driving condition. Participants navigated eight scenarios with or without a visual obstruction in a distributed driving simulator. The experimenter drove the other simulated vehicle to manually cause near-miss events. Participants' mean longitudinal velocity, standard deviation of longitudinal velocity, and mean longitudinal acceleration were measured. RESULTS: Participants in passive ADS group showed greater, and more variable, deceleration rates than those in the active ADS group. Despite a reliable audiovisual warning, participants failed to slow down in the red-light running scenario when the conflict vehicle was occluded. Participant's trust in the automated driving system did not vary between the beginning and end of the experiment. CONCLUSION: Drivers interacting with ADS in a passive manner may continue to show increased and more variable deceleration rates in near-miss scenarios even with reliable connected vehicle technology. Future research may focus on interactive effects of automated and connected driving technologies on drivers' ability to anticipate and safely navigate near-miss scenarios. APPLICATION: Designers of automated and connected vehicle technologies may consider different timing and types of cues to inform the drivers of imminent hazard in high-risk scenarios for near-miss events.