The peripartum period involvement in the development of post-partum depression. A prospective cohort study.

PURPOSE: This study explores postpartum depression (PPD) in women who screened negative in mid-pregnancy to assess the impact of the peripartum period on the development of depressive symptoms. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was carried out in two facilities in Argentina. The Edinburgh postnatal depression scale (EPDS) scale was applied to pregnant women between weeks 20-24 gestation, and those screening negative (<10) were included in the cohort. Participants were followed up until the 4th week postpartum, when the EPDS was repeated. If positive, a semi-structured clinical interview was applied (MINI) to define the diagnosis. RESULTS: A total of 112 pregnant women were eligible for the follow-up. At the 4th week postpartum, 14 women (12.5%, CI 95% 7.0; 20.1) screened positive using a cutoff point of 10 or more in the EPDS. Of those screened positive in the EPDS, two participants (1.8%, CI 95% 0.2-6.3) had a Major Depressive Disorder. Newborn admission to the Intensive Care Unit, hospitalization of the newborn after discharge, abuse during childbirth, and lack of company during labor were identified as peripartum risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: This study reinforces the relevance of women and newborn mental health care during the hospitalization process surrounding peripartum. The women and newborn hospitalization process should be better explored to understand the contribution to PPD and design and test strategies to alleviate the impact of maternal depression.

Association of postpartum depression and epidural analgesia in women during labor: an observational study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Postpartum depression affects women, manifesting with depressed mood, insomnia, psychomotor retardation, and suicidal thoughts. Our study examined if there is an association between epidural analgesia use and postpartum depression. METHODS: Patients were divided into two groups. One group received epidural analgesia during labor while the second group did not. The Edinburgh postnatal depression scale (EPDS) was administered to patients prior to birth and 6 weeks postpartum. Pain severity was assessed by the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) during labor and at 24hours postpartum. RESULTS: Of the 92 patients analyzed, 47.8% (n=44) received epidural analgesia. We detected significantly higher VAS score during labor (p= 0.007) and 24 hours postpartum (p = 0.0001) in the group without epidural analgesia. At 6 weeks postpartum, a significant difference was observed between the EPDS scores of both groups (p= 0.0001). Regression analysis revealed higher depression scores in patients experiencing higher levels of pain during labor (OR = 0.572, p= 0.039). Epidural analgesia strongly correlated with lower scores of depression (OR = 0.29, p= 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The group that received epidural analgesia had lower pain scores. A high correlation between epidural analgesia and lower depression levels was found. Pregnant women giving birth via the vaginal route and having high pain scores could reduce postnatal depression scores using epidural labor analgesia. Pregnant women should opt for epidural analgesia during labor to lessen postpartum depression levels.

Antenatal and Postnatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Trajectories and Child Hospitalization up to 24 Months of Life: Findings From the 2015 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between antenatal and postnatal maternal depression symptoms, and child hospitalization during the first 2 years of life in the 2015 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study. STUDY DESIGN: This is an observational study. Maternal depressive symptoms of 4275 mothers were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Hospitalization of the child for any reason was assessed using maternal report. Bivariate analysis and multivariate Poisson regressions were used to assess the association between maternal depressive symptoms and child hospitalization. RESULTS: Compared with children of mothers with low depressive symptoms, children whose mothers experienced significant antenatal depressive symptoms were 1.74 (95% CI, 1.16-2.60) times more likely to be hospitalized by 3 months of age, and 2.14 (95% CI, 1.46-3.14) times more likely up to 24 months. For children whose mothers experienced severe postnatal depressive symptoms at 3 months, the risks for hospitalization by age 12 months were 1.84 (95% CI, 1.39-2.45) higher than children whose mothers had low depressive symptoms. There was an increased risk of hospitalization for children according to the severity of depressive trajectories across time. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal depressive symptoms are a risk factor for hospitalization in children up to 2 years of age, and this risk increases with increased severity of depression. These results have public health relevance for decreasing the risk factors in mothers that can lead to hospitalization in children.

Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Perceived Stress in Postpartum Mexican Women during the COVID-19 Lockdown.

The COVID-19 lockdown represents a new challenge for mental health researchers and clinical practitioners. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and perceived stress in postpartum Mexican women. The study included 293, 4-12-week postpartum women over the age of 18. The Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), Trait-State Trait Anxiety Inventory (T-STAI), and Ten Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), which are all questionnaires validated for the Mexican population, were applied using a web-based online survey. Prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. The mean ± standard deviation (SD) of the maternal age was 29.9 ± 6.3 years; the EPDS score: 11 ± 6, T-STAI score: 41.7 ± 12.3, and PSS-10 score: 17.1 ± 7. The prevalence (95% CI) of the postpartum depression symptoms was 39.2% (34-45%), trait anxiety symptoms were found among 46.1% (32-43%) of the participants, and moderate and high perceived stress were in 58% (52-64) and 10.9% (7.8-15) of the participants, respectively. The prevalence of depressive symptoms, generalized anxiety, and perceived stress was higher among postpartum Mexican women during the COVID-19 outbreak than before the lockdown. Our findings highlight the importance of monitoring perinatal mental health during pandemics and the need to design effective psychologic interventions for these patients.

Postpartum depression: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Postpartum depression (PPD) is a mild to severe mood disorder, starting at 6 weeks after birth and with an incidence of approximately 25% in Brazilian puerperae. Its occurrence induce significant aggravations to maternal and child health, however, its risk factors, although known, are little explored for the appropriate diagnosis. PURPOSE: To correlate PPD with anxiety, smoking, alcoholism, parity, type of birth, gestational and maternal age, identifying the possible risk factors that increase the probability of a puerpera developing a depressive episode. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A case-control study performed at the Alzir Bernardino Alves Infant and Maternity Hospital in the city of Vila Velha, Espirito Santo, Brazil. The sample consisted of 227 puerperae. The cutoff point for depression was defined as >10 points according to the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), and cutoff points for anxiety were defined as <33 points for low anxiety, between 33 and 49 for moderate anxiety and >49 for high anxiety according to the State - Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T). RESULTS: 29.1% of the 227 interviewed puerperae presented PPD and were considered "cases", with the remaining being considered as "control". There was a positive correlation between PPD and anxiety. No significant correlation was observed for the other risk factors. Women with moderate anxiety presented 17.38 times more probability to develop depressive episodes, and puerperae with high anxiety presented 273 times more chance of developing PPD. CONCLUSIONS: Our results evidenced a high percentage of puerperae with PPD related to maternal anxiety, demonstrating the importance and the necessity of increasing care for women's mental health in the gestational and puerperal periods.

Diagnostic accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale: consequences of screening in Mexican women.

INTRODUCTION: Postpartum depression is a non-psychotic depressive episode with serious repercussions on the bond between the mother and her child, hence the importance of detecting it in a timely manner. OBJECTIVE: To determine the accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as a diagnostic test and to analyze the consequences of screening and the probability of depression after applying the test. METHOD: Screening of 411 women with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale during the postpartum period; Beck's Depression Inventory was used as reference. RESULTS: At a cutoff point of 12, a sensitivity of 70.4 %, specificity of 72.2 %, positive predictive value of 36.9 % and negative predictive value of 91.4 % were obtained with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, as well as an area under the curve of 0.729 and a p-value of 0.0003. Out of 49 women without treatment for postpartum depression, five were identified to require it. CONCLUSIONS: The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale has moderate accuracy; its application is simple, accessible and should be routine. It is necessary for strategies to detect and treat postpartum depression to be implemented in Mexico.

INTRODUCCIÓN: La depresión posparto es un episodio depresivo no psicótico con repercusiones graves en el vínculo de la madre con su hijo, de ahí la importancia de detectarla oportunamente. OBJETIVO: Determinar la exactitud de la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo como prueba diagnóstica y analizar las consecuencias del tamizaje y la probabilidad de depresión después de aplicar la prueba. MÉTODO: Tamizaje con la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo a 411 mujeres durante el posparto; se utilizó el Inventario de Depresión de Beck como referencia. RESULTADOS: En un punto de corte de 12, con la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo se obtuvo sensibilidad de 70.4 %, especificidad de 72.2 %, valor predictivo positivo de 36.9 % y valor predictivo negativo de 91.4 %, así como un valor del área bajo la curva de 0.729 y p = 0.0003. De 49 mujeres sin atención para depresión posparto, en cinco se identificó que la necesitaban. CONCLUSIONES: La Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo tiene una exactitud moderada; su aplicación es sencilla, accesible y debería ser rutinaria. Es necesario que en México se implementen estrategias para detectar y tratar la depresión posparto.

Exactitud diagnóstica de la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo: consecuencias del tamizaje en mujeres mexicanas / Diagnostic accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale: consequences of screening in Mexican women

Resumen Introducción: La depresión posparto es un episodio depresivo no psicótico con repercusiones graves en el vínculo de la madre con su hijo, de ahí la importancia de detectarla oportunamente. Objetivo: Determinar la exactitud de la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo como prueba diagnóstica y analizar las consecuencias del tamizaje y la probabilidad de depresión después de aplicar la prueba. Método: Tamizaje con la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo a 411 mujeres durante el posparto; se utilizó el Inventario de Depresión de Beck como referencia. Resultados: En un punto de corte de 12, con la Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo se obtuvo sensibilidad de 70.4 %, especificidad de 72.2 %, valor predictivo positivo de 36.9 % y valor predictivo negativo de 91.4 %, así como un valor del área bajo la curva de 0.729 y p = 0.0003. De 49 mujeres sin atención para depresión posparto, en cinco se identificó que la necesitaban. Conclusiones: La Escala de Depresión Posnatal de Edimburgo tiene una exactitud moderada; su aplicación es sencilla, accesible y debería ser rutinaria. Es necesario que en México se implementen estrategias para detectar y tratar la depresión posparto.

Abstract Introduction Postpartum depression is a non-psychotic depressive episode with serious repercussions on the bond between the mother and her child, hence the importance of detecting it in a timely manner. Objective: To determine the accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as a diagnostic test and to analyze the consequences of screening and the probability of depression after applying the test. Method: Screening of 411 women with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale during the postpartum period; Beck's Depression Inventory was used as reference. Results: At a cutoff point of 12, a sensitivity of 70.4 %, specificity of 72.2 %, positive predictive value of 36.9 % and negative predictive value of 91.4 % were obtained with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, as well as an area under the curve of 0.729 and a p-value of 0.0003. Out of 49 women without treatment for postpartum depression, five were identified to require it. Conclusions: The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale has moderate accuracy; its application is simple, accessible and should be routine. It is necessary for strategies to detect and treat postpartum depression to be implemented in Mexico.

Associations between postpartum depression and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To identify possible relationships between postpartum depression and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP), as well as the associated risk factors for developing postpartum depression. METHODS: The present prospective descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among postpartum women who attended a public maternity hospital in Brazil between January 15, 2015, and January 15, 2017. The diagnosis and severity of HDP were based on blood pressure measurements (systolic ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic ≥90 mm Hg), proteinuria, clinical findings, and laboratory findings. A group of normotensive women was also included. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was used to assess the risk of postpartum depression. RESULTS: Of 168 participants (42 with HDP and 126 normotensive), 40 (23.8%) women displayed depressive symptoms (25 normotensive and 15 with HDP). The probability of postpartum depression correlated with a diagnosis of HDP (Spearman correlation coefficient [rS ] 0.219; P=0.004); premonitory signs of eclampsia (rS 0.171; P=0.027); magnesium sulfate therapy (rS 0.199; P=0.010); diastolic blood pressure (rS 0.165; P=0.033); and use of milk formula during hospitalization (rS 0.152; P=0.048). CONCLUSION: Women diagnosed with HDP were more likely to have depressive symptoms than their normotensive counterparts.

Patterns and predictors of depressive symptoms among Jamaican fathers of newborns.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 10% of fathers in the Cultural West (i.e., US, Europe, and Australia) experience depression. We broaden the cultural scope of paternal depression research by investigating the prevalence and predictors of depressive symptoms among Jamaican fathers. METHODS: The present research draws upon structured interviews with 3425 fathers of newborn children participating in a Jamaican birth cohort study-JA Kids-and represents one of the largest sample sizes of any study on postnatal depression among fathers worldwide. This sample of fathers participated from July to September 2011, and represents approximately 30% of all men who became fathers during that time in Jamaica. Fathers answered questions about sociodemographic background, relationship status and quality, social support, health, expectations and views of a partner's pregnancy, and the ten-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). RESULTS: Analyses reveal that 9.1% (95% CI 8.1-10.1) of these Jamaican fathers of newborns had EPDS scores of 10 or higher, indicative of possible depression. Results suggest that educational attainment was not related to EPDS scores, though higher indices of material wealth (e.g., refrigerator and vehicle) were weakly, negatively related to EDS scores. Paternal age was also weakly negatively predictive of EDS scores. Whereas relationship status was unrelated to depressive symptoms, relationship quality negatively predicted depressive symptoms. Several other measures of social support (lacking a close circle of friends, fewer family, or friends to help in times of trouble) were also associated with higher EPDS scores. CONCLUSIONS: We interpret these findings in light of existing work on paternal depression, including the importance of social context and support.

Patient Health Questionnaire-9 versus Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in screening for major depressive episodes: a cross-sectional population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive episodes (MDE) are frequent at the population level and are generally associated with severe symptoms that impair performance of activities of daily living of individuals suffering from this condition. The aim of this study was to compare the accuracy of two tests that separately showed suitable properties in screening for MDE: the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). METHODS: In a previous study, the sensitivity and specificity of the PHQ-9 and the EPDS in screening for MDE were compared with a structured diagnostic interview conducted by psychiatrics and psychologists using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview as the gold standard. In a sample of adults living in the community in Pelotas, Brazil, the PHQ-9 and EPDS were applied at the same interview and the gold standard on a median of 17 days later. The interviews were carried out at the participant's home. RESULTS: 447 Individuals (191 men and 256 women) were assessed. The PHQ-9 and the EPDS results were concordant in 87.5% of the respondents, with a moderate agreement beyond what was expected by chance alone (kappa = 0.61). The areas below the ROC curves were not statistically different (82.1% for PHQ-9 and 83.5% for EPDS) (p = 0.291), thus indicating that the two tests had similar moderate accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: PHQ-9 and EPDS may be applied with equal confidence in screening for MDE in the community.

Prevalence and predictors of positive screening for postpartum depression in minority parturients in the South Bronx.

It is reported that the rates of perinatal depressive disorders are high in ethnic minority groups from non-English speaking countries. However, very few studies have compared the prevalence of positive screening for postpartum depression (PPD) in minority communities living in an inner city. The goal of this study is to determine the prevalence and the predictors of positive screening for postpartum depression in minority parturients in the South Bronx. The study is a chart review of 314 minority parturients, Black or Hispanic, screened for postpartum depression using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) tool. The overall prevalence of a positive EPDS screen among Black and Hispanic women was similar, 24.04 and 18.75%, respectively. The Black immigrant cohort had comparable positive screens with 23.81 as African Americans. Hispanic women born in the USA had the least prevalence of positive screens, 7.14%, and those who moved from the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico had a prevalence of 17.24% of positive screens. The women who immigrated from Mexico, Central America, or South America had the highest prevalence of positive screens for PPD, 32.26%. As to the socioeconomic status (SES), there was a significant increase of 27.04 vs. 13.95% (P < 0.019) in positive screens for PPD for the unemployed mothers. Overall, Black and Hispanic parturients had similar rates of positive screens for PPD. Among the Hispanic women, immigrants had higher rates of positive screens, with those from Mexico, Central, and South America as the highest. The hospital experience did not affect the rates of positive screens. Neither did the SES with one exception; those unemployed had the higher rates of positive screens.

Depresión posparto en padres: ¿por qué también es importante? / Paternal postpartum depression. Why is it also important?

La supervisión de salud es una oportunidad privilegiada para acompañar a las nuevas familias en su transición a la parentalidad. Este período trae importantes desafíos para la madre y el padre, y en ocasiones la demanda puede superar los recursos emocionales de la familia; este desbalance puede favorecer que madres y padres presenten sintomatología depresiva. La depresión posparto puede afectar de uno a dos de cada diez hombres, siendo la depresión materna un factor de riesgo importante para desarrollarla. La depresión posparto en el padre impacta a todos los miembros de la familia, siendo el desarrollo infantil, el vínculo y la salud mental del niño los que pueden verse alteradas a corto, mediano y largo plazo. Parece relevante por lo tanto pensar en un tamizaje para pesquisar precozmente la depresión posparto no sólo en madres sino también en padres y dar así un primer paso a ampliar la mirada desde la diada madre-hijo a la triada. El control de salud del niño es una oportunidad única para poder realizar esta pesquisa, sin embargo la validación de una escala de tamizaje de depresión posparto en padres chilenos es una tarea pendiente.

Health supervision is a privileged opportunity to walk along with the new families during their transition to parenthood. This period is challenging for both mother and father, and there is the potential danger that demand surpasses the existing resources of the family. This imbalance may lead to mothers and fathers to develop depressive symptomatology. Postpartum depression may affect one to two out of ten men, and maternal depression is a major risk factor for developing it. The postpartum depression in the father impact all the family members, being the child development, the bonding, and the child´s mental health which can be disturb at a short, medium and long term. Therefore, it seems to be relevant to think about screening for post partum depression not only in mothers but also fathers, and give a first step to broaden the gaze from the dyad to the triad. The health supervision is a unique opportunity to be able to carry out this screening; however, the validation of a postpartum screening test for Chilean fathers is a pending task.

Patient health questionnaire-9 versus Edinburgh postnatal depression scale in screening for major depressive episodes: a cross-sectional population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive episodes (MDE) are frequent at the population level and are generally associated with severe symptoms that impair performance of activities of daily living of individuals suffering from this condition. The aim of this study was to compare the accuracy of two tests that separately showed suitable properties in screening for MDE: the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale (EPDS). METHODS: In a previous study, the sensitivity and specificity of the PHQ-9 and the EPDS in screening for MDE were compared with a structured diagnostic interview conducted by psychiatrics and psychologists using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview as the gold standard. In a sample of adults living in the community in Pelotas, Brazil, the PHQ-9 and EPDS were applied at the same interview and the gold standard on a median of 17 days later. The interviews were carried out at the participant's home. RESULTS: 447 individuals (191 men and 256 women) were assessed. The PHQ-9 and the EPDS results were concordant in 87.5 % of the respondents, with a moderate agreement beyond what was expected by chance alone (kappa = 0.61). The areas below the ROC curves were not statistically different (82.1 % for PHQ-9 and 83.5 % for EPDS) (p = 0.291), thus indicating that the two tests had similar moderate accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: PHQ-9 and EPDS may be applied with equal confidence in screening for MDE in the community.

Factors associated with postpartum depressive symptomatology in Brazil: The Birth in Brazil National Research Study, 2011/2012.

BACKGROUND: Depression is one of the most common postpartum mental disorders. Many sociodemographic and individuals risk factors are associated with maternal depression but the impact of high levels of birth intervention is unclear. The Brazilian context is characterized by excessive intervention and frequent non-compliance with recommended obstetric protocols. This study therefore examined the impact of sociodemographic, individual, and obstetric risk factors in postpartum depression. METHODS: The Birth in Brazil research study is a national study of 23,894 postpartum women. Information about depression was obtained by telephone interview at 6-18 months after birth and was measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. RESULTS: The prevalence of probable cases of depression was 26.3%. A multiple logistic regression model identified significant sociodemographic and individual risk factors as: brown skin color (OR=1.15 CI 1.01-1.31), lower economic class (OR=1.70 CI 1.41-2.06), alcohol use (OR=1.41 CI 1.09-1.84) and a history of mental disorders (OR=3.13 CI 1.80-5.44). Significant obstetric factors were unplanned pregnancy (OR=1.22 CI 1.05-1.43 for wanted later and OR=1.38 CI 1.20-1.60 for never wanted), multiparity (OR=1.97 CI 1.58-2.47 for 3 or more children), and poor care during birth (OR=2.02 CI 1.28-3.20) or of the newborn (OR=2.16 CI 1.51-3.10). Obstetric interventions and complications were not associated with maternal depression. LIMITATIONS: Depression was measured only once so we are not able to examine the course over time. The associational and reverse causality cannot be ruled out for some variables. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of postpartum depression is high in Brazilian women six months after birth. Poor care of women and babies during birth is more important in postpartum depression than physical obstetric or neonatal intervention and complications.

Comparison of two instruments to track depression symptoms during pregnancy in a sample of pregnant teenagers in Southern Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: Depression during pregnancy in adolescents is increasing significantly. However, instruments for early depression screening during prenatal care are scarce. Faced this fact, the objective of this research is to identify the best cutoff points for the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) in a sample of pregnant adolescents. METHOD: 807 pregnant adolescents, with a mean age of 17 years, met in public antenatal services were evaluated. Two screening scales for depression were analyzed, EPDS and the BDI. These scales had their accuracy measured by AUC of their ROC curve, as well as their respective sensitivity and specificity. RESULTS: In the analysis, the best cutoff for the EPDS was≥10, in which the sensitivity was 81.1% and specificity 82.7%. For the BDI, it was with recognized the cutoff ≥11, sensitivity 86.7% and specificity 73.8%. In the analysis of the ROC AUC, values of 0.89 (CI 0.87-0.92) for the EPDS and BDI for 0.87 (CI 0.84-0.89) were identified compared to the MINI. LIMITATIONS: The sample was composed majority by middle and low income adolescent and the study was performed only with pregnant women in the second trimester. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that both scales have good accuracy in screening of depression in adolescent mothers. However, the EPDS scale shows higher AUC ROC and also better sensitivity and specificity values, the latter being more precise and effective for screening for depression in this population.

Early adversity, socioemotional development, and stress in urban 1-year-old children.

OBJECTIVE: To determine demographic, maternal, and child factors associated with socioemotional (SE) problems and chronic stress in 1-year-old children. STUDY DESIGN: This was a prospective, longitudinal, community-based study, which followed mother-infant dyads (n = 1070; representative of race, education, and income status of Memphis/Shelby County, Tennessee) from midgestation into early childhood. Child SE development was measured using the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment in all 1097 1-year-olds. Chronic stress was assessed by hair cortisol in a subsample of 1-year-olds (n = 297). Multivariate regression models were developed to predict SE problems and hair cortisol levels. RESULTS: More black mothers than white mothers reported SE problems in their 1-year-olds (32.9% vs 10.2%; P < .001). In multivariate regression, SE problems in blacks were predicted by lower maternal education, greater parenting stress and maternal psychological distress, and higher cyclothymic personality score. In whites, predictors of SE problems were Medicaid insurance, higher maternal depression score at 1 year, greater parenting stress and maternal psychological distress, higher dysthymic personality score, and male sex. SE problem scores were associated with higher hair cortisol levels (P = .01). Blacks had higher hair cortisol levels than whites (P < .001). In the entire subsample, increased hair cortisol levels were associated with higher parenting stress (P = .001), lower maternal depression score (P = .01), lower birth length (P < .001), and greater length at 1 year of age (P = .003). CONCLUSION: Differences in maternal education, insurance, mental health, and early stress may disrupt SE development in children. Complex relationships between hair cortisol level in 1-year-olds and maternal parenting stress and depression symptoms suggest dysregulation of the child's hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Factores de riesgo de depresión posparto en puérperas venezolanas valoradas por medio de la escala de Edimburgo / Risk factors of postpartum depression in Venezuelan women measured by Edinburgh postnatal depression scale

Antecedentes: La depresión posparto (DPP) es un importante trastorno de la salud mental en la mujer, al cual se le han atribuido variados factores de riesgo para su presentación. Objetivo: Se propuso determinar los factores de riesgos para DPP en puérperas atendidas en la Maternidad "Dr. Armando Castillo Plaza" del Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Venezuela. Método: Se realizó una investigación descriptiva con diseño no experimental, mediante una muestra de 100 puérperas, evaluadas por la Escala de Depresión Postparto de Edimburgo (EDPS). Resultados: Hubo una prevalencia del test positivo del 91 por ciento, con una prevalência de DPP confirmada mediante el DSM-IV del 22 por ciento. De las características evaluadas solo los trastornos médicos durante el embarazo, la enfermedad del neonato, no contar con el apoyo de su pareja, presentar antecedentes de depresión o melancolía o tener un nivel educativo primario o inferior, mostraron una asociación significativa con el desarrollo de DPP. El nacimiento mediante cesárea y no contar con el apoyo familiar presentaron una asociación significativa con el riesgo de DPP; mientras que el parto vaginal o haber alcanzado un nivel educativo superior a la primaria mostraron tener un efecto protector. Conclusión: Existe una alta prevalencia de DPP, con diversos factores de riesgo que permitirían tomar acciones para un diagnóstico oportuno de esta enfermedad.

Background: Postpartum depression (PPD) is a major mental health disorder in women, which have been attributed to various risk factors for it presentation. Objective: To determine the PPD's risk factors present in the postpartum patients taken care of Maternity "Dr Armando Castillo Plaza" at the University Hospital of Maracaibo, Venezuela. Method: A descriptive study was conducted with non-experimental design, which included a sample of 100 postpartum women, as measured by the scale of the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression (EDPS). Results: The results demonstrated a prevalence of the positive test in 91 percent of the sample, with a confirmed prevalence of postpartum depression by the DSM-IV of 22 percent, determined that the characteristics assessed only medical disorders during pregnancy, the disease of the newborn, not having the support from your partner, have a history of depression or melancholy, or have a primary or lower education level, showed a significant association with the development of PPD. For its part, the birth by caesarean section and not having family support showed a significant association with the risk of PPD, while vaginal delivery or have reached a level higher than primary education showed a protective effect with this condition. Conclusion: There is a high prevalence of postpartum depression, with several risk factors that would take action for a timely diagnosis of disease.

Prevalencia de depresión posparto en primigestas y multíparas valoradas por la escala de Edimburgo / Prevalence of postpartum depression in nulliparous and multiparous women evaluated by Edinburgh postnatal depression scale

Antecedentes: Los trastornos depresivos representan un importante problema de salud pública, siendo más frecuente en las mujeres y con mayor riesgo durante el embarazo y puerperio. Objetivo: Comparar la prevalencia de depresión posparto en primigestas y multíparas atendidas en la División de Obstetricia y Ginecología del Servicio Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Venezuela. Método: Se realizó una investigación comparativa con diseño no experimental, que incluyó una muestra de 100 mujeres en puerperio tardío, divididas en dos grupos pares de 50 sujetos según paridad, evaluadas mediante la Escala de Depresión Posparto de Edimburgo. Resultados: Los resultados demostraron una prevalencia del test positivo en el 91 por ciento de la muestra, con una prevalencia de depresión posparto confirmada por medio del DSM-IV del 22 por ciento, presentando mayor frecuencia de ideación suicida las multíparas (p<0,05). No hubo una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre paridad y depresión posparto. Conclusión: La población estudiada presenta una alta prevalencia de depresión postparto, sin diferencias en cuanto a su paridad.

Background: Today the depressive upheavals represent an important public health's problem, being more frequent in the women and with greater risk during the pregnancy and puerperium. Objective: To compare the prevalence of postpartum depression in nulliparous and multiparous women taken care of Maternity "Dr. Armando Castillo Plaza" at the University Hospital of Maracaibo, Venezuela. Method: A comparative investigation with non experimental design was realized, it which included a sample of 100 women in later puerperium, divided in two even groups of 50 subjects according to her parity, evaluated by Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The results demonstrated a prevalence of the positive test in 91 percent of the sample, with a confirmed prevalence of postpartum depression by the DSM-IV of 22 percent, presenting a highly frequency of suicidal ideas in the multiparous group (p<0.05) also, don't found statistically significant association between parity and postpartum depression. Conclusion: The studied population show a highly prevalence of postpartum depression, without majors differences according to the parity.

Aspectos epidemiológicos da depressão pós-parto em amostra brasileira / Postpartum depression epidemiology in a Brazilian sample

INTRODUÇÃO: Sintomas psiquiátricos são freqüentes após o parto, momento marcado por alterações hormonais e mudanças no caráter social, na organização familiar e na identidade feminina. A Escala de Depressão Pós-Parto de Edimburgo (EPDS) é instrumento de auto-avaliação para rastrear depressão após a gestação, nem sempre adequadamente reconhecida pelos profissionais de saúde. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar prevalência de depressão pós-parto em mulheres atendidas em unidades básicas de saúde. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal com aplicação da EPDS em 292 mulheres que se encontravam entre 31 e 180 dias após o parto. Adotamos o ponto de corte < 12 na EPDS como depressão. RESULTADOS: Do total, 115 (39,4 por cento) apresentaram escores < 12, na EPDS, foram consideradas deprimidas; 177 (60,6 por cento), com escores < 12, foram consideradas não-deprimidas. Mulheres com menor escolaridade, maior número de gestações, maior paridade, maior número de filhos vivos e menor tempo de relacionamento apresentaram mais depressão. CONCLUSÃO: A elevada freqüência de depressão pós-parto está relacionada com fatores sociais, demonstrando a importância dos profissionais de atenção básica na detecção precoce da depressão, tendo como auxílio instrumentos como a EPDS, pela sua eficácia e praticidade.

INTRODUCTION: Psychiatric symptoms are frequent in the postpartum period, a moment marked by hormonal alterations and changes in social character, family organization and women's identity. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is a self-reporting instrument to track depression after pregnancy, unfortunately not always properly supported by health care professionals. This study aimed at verifying the prevalence of postpartum depression in women receiving care at basic health units. METHODS: Cross-sectional study including 292 women in the postpartum period (from day 31 to 180) who answered the EPDS questionnaire. Cut-off point < 12 for EPDS depression was used. RESULTS: A total of 115 women (39.4 percent) had scores < 12 in EPDS, classified as depressive; 177 (60.6 percent) had scores < 12 and were not considered depressive. Women with lower education, higher number of pregnancies, higher parity, higher number of live children and shortest relationship time had more depression. CONCLUSION: High frequency of postpartum depression is associated with social factors, which shows the importance of health care professionals in early detection of depression, with the aid of instruments such as EPDS, due to its efficacy and practicability.

Variables posiblemente asociadas a depresión posparto, según escala Edimburgo / Variables probably associated to postpartum depression, according to the Edimburg scale

Analizar algunas variables sociodemográficas, obstétricas y perinatales asociadas al riesgo de depresión posparto, según escala de Edimburgo. Departamento de Obstetricia y Puericultura. Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Concepción y Hospital de Coronel, Chile. Estudio analítico, observacional en 50 puérperas que asistieron a control a la 6° semanas posparto en el 2006. Se les aplicó la escala de Edimburgo, escala de Graffar y un instrumento de variables obstétricas y perinatales. Para el análisis estadístico se aplicó las pruebas Fisher y Chicuadrado. La frecuencia de test positivo según escala de Edimburgo, fue de 22 por ciento. La edad, escolaridad, estado civil, nivel socioeconómico, paridad, patologías del embarazo, tipo de parto, hospitalización del recién nacido, no resultaron estadísticamente diferentes para riesgo de depresión posparto. Es necesario realizar un tamizaje universal para la pesquisa precoz de depresión posparto y realizar nuevos estudios considerando otros factores asociados.

To analyze some socio-demographic, obstetrical and perinatal factors associated to postpartum depression risk in women, according to the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Setting: Department of Obstetrics and Puericulture. Faculty of Medicine, University of Concepcion and Hospital of Coronel, Chile. Analytical and observational study in 50 postnatal women that attended control to six weeks pospartum in 2006. It was applied the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, Graffar scale and an instrument of obstetrical and perinatal variables. For the statistical analysis, the Fisher and Chisquare tests were applied. The frequency of positive test accordong to the Edinburg scale was 22 percent. The age, marital status, socioeconomic level, parity, pregnancy pathologies, type of delivery, and hospitalization of newborn, were not statistically different for postpartum depression risk. It is necessary to make a universal screening for the precocious detection of postpartum depression and to performe studies considering other associated factors.