[Gaston Ramon and concise history of anatoxins (to the centenary of discovery)].

The article analyzes past history, main milestones of making, research and improvement of anatoxins from works of Gaston Ramon who first proposed 100 years ago method of obtaining reliable vaccine preparation (anatoxin) on the basis of formalin neutralized diphtheria (and then tetanus) toxin (1922-1923) to nowadays scientific achievements in prevention and treatment of these infectious diseases.

Gaston Ramon (to Centenary of the discovery of anatoxins).

In the history of science, there are great scientists who, without being physicians, wrote golden pages in the History of Medicine. Such was Louis Pasteur, founder of scientific microbiology and immunology. Such was his follower Gaston Ramon (1886-1963), French veterinarian and immunologist who created 100 years ago first anatoxin for active prevention of diphtheria and later tetanus and thus opened era of anatoxins (toxoids) - vaccines based on toxin molecule devoid of toxic properties, but preserving immunogenicity and antigenic specificity. For many centuries, diphtheria (originally known as 'croup') was incurable contagious disease, especially among children. In XIX century, it affected in France up to 30,000 people per year and killed every second infected child. In 1888, at the Pasteur Institute (Paris), Emile Roux (1853-1933) and Alexandre Yersin (1863-1943) demonstrated for first time that symptoms of diphtheria are caused not by bacteria themselves, but by deadly toxin released by them. The long-term search for method of treatment and prevention of diphtheria did not bring the desired result. It will take many years, before Gaston Ramon in 1923 will be able to neutralize diphtheria toxin by acting on it with formalin at certain temperature and thus will receive "anatoxin", mean of vaccination against diphtheria. The article analyzes stages of these studies, which proved high effectiveness of anatoxin and proceeded with widespread implementation of vaccination against diphtheria and later tetanus in short time in France and in Russia (with active participation of Pavel F. Zdrodovsky, 1890-1976). The separate section of the article is devoted to life story of Gaston Ramon and his activities in the Pasteur Institute. The scientist who opened the era of anatoxins did not become Nobel Prize winner, despite the fact that various organizations and scientists from many countries of the world have nominated him 155 times for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in different years. He received recognition in France, his Motherland: Gaston Ramon is holder of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor and streets, colleges, lyceums, schools are named after him.

El Instituto de Higiene y la enseñanza de la Bacteriología en Chile

El Instituto de Higiene, fundado por el gobierno de Chile en 1892, aparte de sus funciones en el ámbito de la salud pública, participó activamente en la docencia de pregrado de Bacteriología de la Escuela de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile. La cátedra de Bacteriología fundada en 1895 fue trasladada en 1902 a la sección de seroterapia de dicho instituto (uno de los cinco edificios que formaban el instituto). La cátedra permaneció en ese lugar por tres décadas, siendo trasladada en 1930 por el Dr. Hugo Vaccaro de vuelta a la Escuela de Medicina. Por otra parte, la cátedra extraordinaria de Bacteriología siguió ligada a dicho instituto y a su inmediato sucesor el Instituto Bacteriológico de Chile. Sin embargo, luego del incendio de la Escuela de Medicina en 1948, la cátedra ordinaria tuvo que retornar a sus antiguos edificios en la ribera del Mapocho y paralelamente la cátedra extraordinaria se trasladó a una nueva ubicación en Ñuñoa.

The Institute of Hygiene, founded by the Chilean government in 1892, apart from its functions in the field of public health, actively participated in the undergraduate teaching of Bacteriology at the School of Medicine of the University of Chile. The chair of Bacteriology founded in 1895 was transferred in 1902 to the serotherapy section of the mentioned institute (one of the five buildings that made up the institute). The chair remained in that place for three decades, being transferred by Dr. Hugo Vaccaro back to the School of Medicine in 1930. On the other hand, the Extraordinary Chair of Bacteriology continued to be linked to the said institute and to its immediate successor, the Bacteriological Institute of Chile. However, after the fire at the School of Medicine in 1948, the ordinary chair had to return to its old buildings on the banks of the Mapocho and at the same time the extraordinary chair moved to a new location in Ñuñoa.

Los inicios de la fagoterapia en Chile: los doctores Mercedes Perez Matus y Hugo Vaccaro Kosovich

Mercedes Pérez Matus y Hugo Vaccaro Kosovich fueron destacados médicos y microbiólogos de la cátedra ordinaria de Bacteriología de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile. En 1931, ambos médicos fueron contratados por la Facultad de Medicina para reorganizar la convulsionada Cátedra de Bacteriología luego de la crisis política de 1931. En el mismo período el destacado investigador del instituto Pasteur Eugéne Wollman vino a Chile a dirigir el Instituto Sanitas (1929-1931), incorporando en nuestro país el conocimiento sobre los bacteriófagos y las técnicas para su aislamiento. La prolongada labor docente y de investigación de Vaccaro y Pérez se extendió por casi 40 años (1931-1970). Publicaron numerosos artículos científicos, siendo uno de sus temas preferidos, en los primeros años, el estudio de los bacteriófagos que aprendieron junto a Wollman. En la década de los 40, bajo el liderazgo de los Dres. Vaccaro y Pérez, se inició la fagoterapia en Chile.

Mercedes Perez Matus and Hugo Vaccaro Kosovich were distinguished doctors and microbiologists from the ordinary chair of Bacteriology at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Chile. In 1931, both doctors were hired by the F aculty of Medicine to reorganize the convulsed Chair of Bacteriology after the political crisis of 1931. In the same period, the prominent Pasteur Institute researcher Eugene Wollman came to Chile to direct the Sanitas Institute (1929-1931), incorporating in our country the knowledge about bacteriophages and the techniques for their isolation. The long teaching and research work of Vaccaro and Pérez spanned almost 40 years (1931-1970). They published numerous scientific articles, being one of their favorite topics, in the early years, the study of bacteriophages that they learned together with Wollman. In the 1940s, under the leadership of Drs. Vaccaro and Pérez, phage therapy began in Chile.

Microbes before microbiology: Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg and Berlin's infusoria.

Naturalist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg pioneered research on living and fossil infusoria (including protists and bacteria) since the 1830s by collecting samples from all over the world, thus describing numerous microbes and discussing their effects for the planet and for humankind. This article introduces Ehrenberg as a natural historian of microbes and situates his work in the nineteenth century life sciences with respect to debates about cell theory, evolution, and concepts of disease. I argue that in spite of occurring before these major conceptual innovations of the life sciences, Ehrenberg's work on the diversity of microbes found in earth or air is more exciting than historiography has made it appear so far, especially in light of today's ecological microbiology.

Semina morbi o semillas de enfermedad / Semina morbi or seeds of disease

Resumen Ya en la antigüedad existía la idea de que pequeñísimos animales o insectos podían causar enfermedades al ser ingeridos o respirados. En forma paralela, varios filósofos desarrollaron el concepto de semillas para explicar la composición del mundo. Ambos conceptos fueron amalgamados en la genial idea de semillas de enfermedad que fue difundida en el célebre poema del filósofo epicúreo Lucrecio denominado "De rerum natura" o "Sobre la naturaleza de las cosas". La idea fue refinada en el Renacimiento por el destacado médico renacentista Gerónimo Fracastorius con sus famosas semina morbi (semillas de enfermedad) que explicaban el contagio. La teoría germinal de los microbios del s. XIX no hizo más que adjudicarle a esta idea ya milenaria un substrato material.

Abstract Already in ancient times there was the idea that tiny animals or insects could cause diseases when ingested or breathed. In parallel, several philosophers developed the concept of seeds to explain the composition of the world. Both concepts were amalgamated in the brilliant idea of seeds of disease that was spread in the famous poem "De rerum natura" by the Epicurean philosopher Lucretius. The idea was refined in the Renaissance by the prominent physician Girolamo Fracastorius with his famous semina morbi (seeds of disease) that explained contagion. The germinal theory of microbes of the s. XIX did nothing more than assign to this already millenary idea a material substratum.

El origen mítico de la sífilis

Resumen En 1530 el célebre médico renacentista veronés Gerónimo Fracastoro escribió su inmortal poema "Syphilis sive morbus gallicus libri tres" (La sífilis o el mal francés en tres libros). Esta obra es un hermoso poema en latín de 1300 versos hexámetros. En el primer libro se describen las causas de la enfermedad y el cuadro clínico característico. En el segundo libro se mencionan los principales tratamientos, destacando especialmente el mercurio. Finalmente, en el tercer libro se relata como los marinos españoles encontraron nativos de la isla de Santo Domingo en América infectados con sífilis y cómo estos explicaban el origen de esta devastadora enfermedad. Los nativos relataban como su ancestro pastor llamado Sífilus, había desafiado en tiempos inmemoriales al dios Apolo o Febo, desatando así su ira y siendo por ello el primer infectado. Del mito del pastor Sífilus deriva la actual denominación de la enfermedad que en tiempos de Fracastoro fue llamada el "mal francés", "morbo gálico" o "lúes venérea".

Abstract In 1530 the famous Veronese Renaissance doctor Geronimus Fracastorius wrote the immortal poem "Syphilis sive de morbo gallicus libre tres" (The three books of syphilis or French disease). This work is a beautiful Latin poem of 1300 hexameter lines. The first book describes the causes of the disease and the characteristic clinical presentation. In book two the main treatments are mentioned, especially mercury. Finally, in the third book, it is related how the Spanish sailors found natives of the island of Santo Domingo in America infected with syphilis and how they explained the origin of this devastating disease. The natives recounted how their shepherd ancestor named Syphilus had challenged the god Apollo or Phoebus in time immemorial, thus unleashing his wrath and thus being the first infected. From the myth of the shepherd Syphilus derives the current denomination of the disease that in times of Fracastoro was called the "French disease", "Gallic disease" or "venereal lues".

Los microbios de Linneo / Linnaeus' microbes

Resumen Uno de los grandes genios de la biología fue el médico sueco Carlos Linneo (1707-1778). Se lo denominó princeps botanicorum por su gran aporte a la clasificación de las plantas. Sin embargo, su fama imperecedera se debe a su obra Systema Naturae en que crea un sistema taxonómico binomial para clasificar a todos los seres vivos y no vivos en tres reinos: el reino mineral, el reino vegetal y el reino animal. En su esquema taxonómico, los animalículos o microorganismos descubiertos por el sabio neerlandés Antoine van Leeuwenhoek en 1676, fueron clasificados tentativamente en el reino animal, dentro de la clase Vermes o Gusanos. La idea de que estos animalitos fueran la causa de las enfermedades infecciosas fue planteada por Linneo y desarrollada en profundidad por Johannes C. Nyander y Johannes Carolus Roos, dos de sus discípulos, quienes publicaron esta idea en sus tesis Exanthemata viva en 1757 y Mundus invisibilis en 1767, respectivamente.

Abstract One of the great geniuses of biology was the Swedish physician Carlos Linnaeus (1707-1778). He was called princeps botanicorum for his great contribution to the classification of plants. However, his undying fame is due to his work Systema Naturae in which he creates a binomial taxonomic system to classify all living and non-living beings into three kingdoms: the mineral kingdom, the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. In his taxonomic scheme, the animalicles or microorganisms discovered by the Dutch scholar Antoine van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, were tentatively classified in the animal kingdom, within the class Vermes or Worms. The idea that these little animals were the cause of infectious diseases was imagined by Linnaeus and developed in depth by Johannes C. Nyander and Johannes Carolus Roos, two of his disciples, who published this idea in their theses Exanthemata viva in 1757 and Mundus invisibilis in 1767, respectively.

Secretos detectados de la naturaleza por Antoine van Leeuwenhoek / Detected secrets for nature by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek

Resumen Una de las obras, probablemente menos conocidas, de Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) es su Arcana naturae detecta (Secretos detectados de la naturaleza) publicada en su primera edición en 1695. Esta obra es una recopilación de 38 cartas sobre temas científicos y está bellamente ilustrada. Una sección notable de ella es la observación y descripción por primera vez de levaduras de la fermentación y sus experimentos sobre la generación espontánea de microorganismos.

Abstract One of the works, probably less known, of Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) is his Arcana naturae detecta (Detected secrets of nature) published in its first edition in 1695. This work is a compilation of 38 letters on scientific issues and it is beautifully illustrated. A notable section of the work is the observation and description for the first time of fermentation yeasts and his experiments on the spontaneous generation of microorganisms.

Leeuwenhoek y sus animálculos / Leeuwenhoek and his little animals

Resumen Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) fue un comerciante de telas holandés y microscopista autodidacta, a quien se le considera el padre de la Microbiología. Sus sorprendentes lentes y agudas observaciones microscópicas durante casi cinco décadas posibilitaron por primera vez desentrañar los secretos del microcosmos. Este trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo principal que el lector pueda acceder de manera directa a algunas de sus famosas cartas dirigidas a la Sociedad Real de Londres, anunciando el descubrimiento de sus celebérrimos animálculos.

Abstract Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was a Dutch cloth merchant and self-taught microscopist who is considered the father of Microbiology. His marvellous lenses and keen microscopic observations over nearly five decades made it possible for the first time to unravel the secrets of the microcosm. The main objective of this work is that the reader can directly access some of his famous letters addressed to the Royal Society of London, announcing the discovery of his famous little animals.

A historical and political epistemology of microbes.

This article traces the historical co-evolution of microbiology, bacteriology, and virology, framed within industrial and agricultural contexts, as well as their role in colonial and national history between the end of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century. The epistemology of germ theory, coupled with the economic interests of European colonies, has shaped the understanding of human-microbial relationships in a reductionist way. We explore a brief history of the medical and biological sciences, focusing on microbes and the difficulty of implementing germ theory outside of biology laboratories. Furthermore, we highlight the work of Lynn Margulis, who conceptualized microbes within their ecological contexts. Such research shows the active role microbes play in handling life-sustaining biological and biochemical processes. We outline how the industrial and technological advancements of the last two centuries not only impacted almost all human societies, but also changed the world on microbial, biological, and geological levels. The narration of these histories is a complex task, and depends on how national, international, and intergovernmental institutions (such as the World Health Organization) conceive of the selective environmental pressures exerted by industry and biotechnological companies.

The interview with Robert Koch held by Huseyin Hulki and the Ottoman delegation on tuberculin therapy.

Robert Koch (1843-1910), who was one of the significant representatives of the golden age of microbiology, claimed to have discovered the tuberculin/vaccine therapy in 1890. During that era, the Ottoman Empire closely followed the important developments in the field of microbiology. For this reason, it was decided that a delegation should have been sent to Germany to observe the lecture "On Bacteriological Research" to be delivered by Koch on August 3, 1890 during the 10th International Congress of Medicine to be held in Berlin. The delegation travelled to Germany and carried out observations and met Koch in the meanwhile. Among the delegation sent to Berlin there was also Dr. Huseyin Hulki Bey, who graduated from the Military School of Medicine in 1885, and could speak French, Greek, Farsi and Arabic. One of the young professors of the medical school, Dr. H. Hulki gathered his memories on the trip to Berlin in a book after his return. In his book published under the title Berlin Memories (1892), he related the interview they held with Koch, the various medical centres they visited in Berlin, and the physicians they met there. This study aims to provide knowledge on the interview held with Koch in Berlin, and its reflections on the Ottoman medicine, in the light of Dr. H. Hulki's memories and other sources shedding light on the relations between Germany and Turkey in the 1890s.

Origin, History, and Meanings of the Word Transmission.

The origin of the words transmit and transmission and their derivatives can be traced to the Latin transmittere, in turn formed by prefixing the preposition trans ("across or beyond") to the verb mittere ("to let go or to send"). From the times of Ancient Rome in the 3rd century b.c.e., the Latin word transmissio has been "transmitted" (through Romance languages such as French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese) to all the major languages of culture, English among them. And through English, the international language of biomedical science in the 21st century, the term transmission is increasingly present today in some of the most dynamic disciplines of modern natural science, including genomics, molecular microbiology, hospital epidemiology, molecular genetics, biotechnology, evolutionary biology, and systems biology.

Professor Yakov Yulievich Bardakh (1857-1929): pioneer of bacteriological research in Russia and Ukraine.

Odessa physician Yakov Bardakh had an unusually high number of bacteriological 'firsts' to his credit: in 1886, while working at the Odessa Bacteriological Station, he was the first to test Louis Pasteur's anti-rabies vaccine on himself in order to demonstrate its safety. In the 1890s, in addition to conducting pioneering research on diphtheria, he created the first extensive course in bacteriology at the Novorossiya University--the first such course in Russia--and established the first university laboratory in Russia to specialize in bacteriology. In 1903 he created the first Medical Emergency Service in Russia.

Rudolf Kraus em busca do "ouro da ciência": a diversidade tropical e a elaboração de novas terapêuticas, 1913-1923 / Rudolf Kraus in search of the "gold of science": tropical diversity and the development of new treatments, 1913-1923

Com base na trajetória de Rudolf Kraus, o artigo analisa a busca de curas para doenças infecciosas em regiões tropicais no início do século XX, dando especial atenção à elaboração por Kraus de novos terapêuticos biológicos como soros, vacinas e soluções proteicas. As regiões tropicais eram com frequência apresentadas como mais propícias à pesquisa devido à maior quantidade de organismos a identificar e também à concorrência supostamente menor entre pares. Os trópicos eram, assim, considerados um oásis para as pesquisas microbiológicas. Kraus dedicou-se à fabricação de diversos produtos de origem biológica, mas não teve o sucesso esperado com muitos deles.

Based on the career of Rudolf Kraus, the article analyzes the search for cures to infectious diseases in tropical regions in the early twentieth century, focusing especially on Kraus' development of new biological treatments like sera, vaccines, and protein solutions. At that time, the world's tropical regions were often portrayed as more propitious for research, given the larger number of organisms that could be identified in these realms and an allegedly lower level of peer competition as well. The tropics were thus seen as an oasis for microbiological research. Kraus dedicated himself to the production of various products of biological origin, but he failed to achieve his hoped-for success with many of them.

Carlos J. Finlay y Juan N. Dávalos: dos figuras cimeras de la microbiología médica. Breve reseña histórica de los orígenes de esta ciencia en Cuba / Carlos J. Finlay and Juan N. Dávalos: two oustanding figures of medical microbiology. Brief historical review of the origins of this science in Cuba

Mucho se ha hablado y escrito sobre la vida y obra del sabio cubano Carlos J. Finlay, no así acerca del doctor Juan Nicolás Dávalos, considerado en su época como el bacteriólogo cubano más renombrado; aunque su obra no llega a situarse a escala mundial, como la de aquel, bien merece ser reconocida por sus innegables valores científicos y humanos. Con este trabajo se pretende lograr un acercamiento al quehacer de estos 2 hombres de ciencia. Para ello se realizó una revisión bibliográfica. Se mostró en el caso del doctor Finlay su actividad desde el punto de vista microbiológico, y en el caso del doctor Dávalos, se brindó una semblanza de su vida y obra, que contribuya a propagar el conocimiento de esta.

A lot has been said and written about the life and work of the Cuban scholar Carlos J. Finlay, but not about Dr. Juan Nicolás Dávalos, considered in his time as the most renown Cuban bacteriologist. Although his work did not reach a place at the world level as that of Carlos J. Finlay, it deserves to be recognized due to its undeniable scientific and human values. With this work, the author pretends to get closer to the work of these two men of science. To this end, a bibliographical review was made. Finlay's activity from the microbiological point of view was approached and in the case of Dr. Dávalos, it was made a sketch of his life and work that contributes to spread their knowledge.