[From physician paternalism to patient autonomy: 25 centuries of history]. / Entre el paternalismo médico y la autonomía de los pacientes: 25 siglos de historia.

From its origins, the doctor-patient relationship accompanied the social and cultural changes that have been modeling different forms of interhuman relationships. However, paternalism remained almost unchanged. Only in the 1970s, hand in hand with postmodern thought and the centrality of ethical, psychological, social and anthropological disciplines, respect for the autonomy of patients began to develop, which constituted the essence of a radical change. "Four models of doctor-patient relationship" are described depending on the objectives of the interaction between the actors, the doctor's obligations and the patient's values. Some particularities are detailed in the decision-making of children and adolescents, the doctrine of the mature minor, and progressive autonomy where the need for informed consent that reflects the autonomy of this age group is evident. It is worth highlighting the importance of communication in the development of a relationship in which the different models can collaborate with a genuine practice of autonomy for patients and their families.

Desde sus orígenes, la relación médico-paciente acompañó los cambios sociales y culturales que han ido modelando diferentes formas vinculares interhumanas. Sin embargo, el paternalismo se mantuvo casi inalterable. Recién en la década del 70, con el pensamiento posmoderno y las disciplinas éticas, psicológicas, sociales y antropológicas, comenzó a desarrollarse el respeto hacia la autonomía de los pacientes. Se describen "cuatro modelos de relación médico-paciente" en función de los objetivos de la interacción entre los actores, las obligaciones del médico y los valores del paciente. Se detallan algunas particularidades en la toma de decisiones de niñas, niños y adolescentes, la doctrina del menor maduro y la autonomía progresiva, que evidencia la necesidad de un consentimiento informado que refleje el reconocimiento de este grupo etario. Es fundamental la comunicación en el desarrollo de una relación en la que los diferentes modelos puedan colaborar con una genuina práctica de la autonomía de los pacientes y sus familias.

Perceptions of COVID-19 patients in the use of bioethical principles and the physician-patient relationship: a qualitative approach.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the approach to the health-disease system, raising the question about the principles of bioethics present in physician-patient relations. The principles while widely accepted may not be sufficient for a comprehensive ethical analysis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the perception of these principles and the physician-patient relationship during a hospital stay through a qualitative approach. METHOD: Sixteen semi-structured interviews took place to know the patients' perception during their 2020 hospitalization for COVID-19. The data was analyzed through the constant comparison method, creating categories and comparing them. In the end, seven categories were established and were grouped in three: bioethical principles (dignity, charity, vulnerability, autonomy), doctor-patient relationship (participant commitment, informed consent, health staff-patient relationship) and the experience of the disease (illness, the role of the family). RESULTS: The research found that most patients described a positive experience, with the feeling of having been well cared for with no sense of discrimination or injustice done. The majority also reported that their autonomy was respected in the treatment decisions. The evaluation of these attitudes is an area of opportunity, especially when the patients' vulnerability is at risk. CONCLUSIONS: The ethics of virtue offers a better reflection of how human beings manifest themselves by emphasizing the development of virtuous character and behaviors that allow them to realize their values in life. Authorized by the Research Ethics Committee with registration: DI/18/105-B/3/308.

Breaking bad news in ophthalmology: a literature review / Comunicação de más notícias em oftalmologia: uma revisão de literatura

ABSTRACT Medical specialties have recognized that breaking bad news assists clinical practice by mitigating the impact of difficult conversations. This scenario also encourages various studies on breaking bad news in ophthalmology since certain ocular diagnoses can be considered bad news. Thus, the objective is to review the scientific literature on breaking bad news in ophthalmology. The literature databases like MEDLINE/PUBMED, EMBASE, LILACS, SCOPUS, COCHRANE, and SCIELO, were screened for related research publications. Two independent reviewers read all the articles and short-listed the most relevant ones. Seven articles, in the formats of original article, review, editorial, oral communication, and correspondence, were reviewed. Conclusively it reveals that ophthalmologists are concerned with communicating bad news effectively but lack related studies. Nevertheless, there is a growing realization that training in breaking bad news can increase physicians' confidence during communication, thus, benefiting the therapeutic relationship with the patient and his family. Therefore, it would be valuable to include breaking bad news training in the curriculum of residencies.

RESUMO O reconhecimento sobre a comunicação de más notícias como mitigadora de conversas difíceis por outras especialidades médicas, incentiva o estudo desta temática na oftalmologia. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo é revisar a produção de pesquisas científicas sobre a comunicação de más notícias em oftalmologia. Para isso, foi realizada uma revisão de literatura. As bases de dados utilizadas foram MEDLINE/PUBMED, EMBASE, LILACS, SCOPUS, COCHRANE e SCIELO. Dois revisores independentes leram todos os artigos e selecionaram a amostra final. Sete artigos foram escolhidos nos formatos de artigo original, revisão, editorial, comunicação oral e correspondência. Os oftalmologistas estão preocupados em comunicar as más notícias de forma eficaz, mas faltam estudos sobre o tema. No entanto, há uma crescente percepção de que o treinamento de comunicação de más notícias aumenta a confiança dos médicos na comunicação, beneficiando a relação terapêutica. Portanto, seria valioso incluir este treinamento no currículo das residências.

Impressão 3D na relação médico-paciente, relato de experiência da integração entre ensino, inovação e assistência / 3D printing in the physician-patient relationship, experience report on the integration between education, innovation and care

RESUMO Introdução: Na literatura, diversos artigos apresentam a satisfação dos pacientes e a melhor clareza de entendimento acerca das informações transmitidas pela equipe médica, com o auxílio de peças tridimensionais. A educação e a saúde são práticas inseparáveis e interdependentes, sempre estiveram articuladas, consideradas elementos fundamentais no processo de atuação dos profissionais da saúde. Assim, professores e alunos do curso de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco criaram uma extensão universitária, que objetivava o uso de modelos anatômicos, impressos em 3D, para educação dos pacientes do ambulatório de ortopedia e traumatologia. Relato de experiência: Ao longo dos seis meses de projeto, foram assistidos 77 pacientes, e o projeto contou com o trabalho de três professores e 18 alunos da graduação, totalizando 98 pessoas envolvidas no projeto. As ações foram divididas em dois blocos. O primeiro consistiu na capacitação dos alunos. No segundo, os discentes realizavam visitas ao ambulatório, acompanhados por um médico especialista responsável, usavam peças impressas pelos próprios alunos, para orientar os pacientes quanto à sua respectiva condição, e davam orientações sobre a terapêutica valendo-se dessas peças impressas. Discussão: A possibilidade de utilização dessa ferramenta como auxílio na comunicação médica abre um vasto horizonte de aplicação da impressão 3D na educação popular em saúde. Isso, por sua vez, propicia o aperfeiçoamento da promoção da saúde de regiões menos desenvolvidas, uma vez que essa interação entre equipe de saúde e comunidade permite a promoção, a proteção e a recuperação da saúde, a partir de um diálogo horizontal, valorizando e respeitando o usuário do sistema de saúde, de maneira a torná-lo agente e protagonista do processo saúde e doença. Conclusão: Projetos de extensão desse tipo têm um enorme potencial para gerar impactos na medicina, na comunidade acadêmica e na população assistida, sobretudo a menos instruída.

ABSTRACT Introduction: In the literature, several articles demonstrate patient satisfaction and better understanding of the information transmitted by the medical team, with the aid of three-dimensional pieces. Education and health are inseparable and interdependent practices, they have always been articulated, and considered crucial elements in the action process of health professionals. Thus, teachers and students of the medicine course at Universidade Federal de Pernambuco created a university extension project that aimed at the use of anatomical models printed in 3D, for the education of patients in the orthopedics and traumatology outpatient clinic. Experience Report: Over the six months of the project, 77 patients were assisted and the project employed the work of 3 teachers and 18 undergraduate students, totaling 98 people involved in the project. The actions were divided into 2 blocks: the first consisted of training the students and, in the second, the students visited the outpatient clinic, accompanied by a specialist physician in charge and used pieces printed by the students themselves, to guide the patients regarding their respective condition and provided guidance on therapy using these printed pieces. Discussion: the possibility of using this tool as an aid in medical communication opens up a vast horizon of application of 3D printing in health education. This, in turn, favors the improvement of health promotion in less developed regions, since this interaction between the health team and the community allows the promotion, protection and recovery of health, based on a horizontal dialogue, valuing and respecting the users of the health system, aiming to make them an agent and protagonist of the health and disease process. Conclusion: It can be concluded, therefore, that extension projects such as this one have enormous potential to generate impacts on medicine, the academic community and the assisted population, especially the less educated ones.

La comunicación del riesgo en cirugía: Un proceso por mejorar / Communication of risk in surgery: A process to improve

Introducción. La evaluación del riesgo es fundamental en el éxito quirúrgico. Las perspectivas de los actores involucrados en el proceso de atención deben alinearse con el fin de planear, comunicar y ejecutar adecuadamente las intervenciones necesarias. El objetivo de este escrito fue analizar el riesgo quirúrgico, considerando los posibles factores relacionados con su estimación, comunicación y comprensión en la práctica clínica. Métodos. Análisis crítico y reflexivo de la información disponible, contrastado con la práctica usual. Se hace un ejercicio con situaciones clínicas habituales. Resultados. La complejidad de los pacientes, los recursos, el contexto y la naturaleza de las intervenciones, demandan una aproximación del riesgo implícito de una cirugía con instrumentos evaluativos confiables y reproducibles. Las percepciones por los médicos, pacientes y administradores en salud acerca del impacto de una cirugía difieren según sus intereses. La transmisión de los resultados es un reto ante la asimetría en el conocimiento, la complejidad de los procedimientos y la incertidumbre en los resultados. La comunicación efectiva, como una competencia, se hace altamente pertinente en la actividad del médico. Facilitar la comprensión del mensaje exige una práctica continua y un proceso de mejoramiento adaptado al contexto de la atención en salud. Conclusiones. El riesgo quirúrgico exige una metodología clara y fiable en su evaluación, comunicación y comprensión entre los actores del sistema de salud. Su presencia está asociada a la actividad profesional de los médicos y requiere competencias que permitan un abordaje no lineal del tema. Es una actividad profesional con el fin de mejorar los desenlaces en salud y la calidad de las intervenciones

Introduction. Evaluation of surgical risk is fundamental in surgical success. The perspectives of the actors involved in the care process must be aligned to adequately plan, communicate, and execute the necessary interventions. The aim of this article is to analyze surgical risk, considering possible factors related to its estimation, communication and understanding in clinical practice. Methods. Critical and reflective analysis of the available information, contrasted with the usual practice. An exercise is done with usual clinical situations. Discussion. Complexity of the patients, resources, context, and nature of the interventions demand an approximation of the implicit risk of surgery with reliable and reproducible evaluation instruments. Perceptions by physicians, patients, and health administrators about the impact of surgery differ according to their interests. The transmission of results is a challenge in the face of asymmetry in knowledge, complexity of procedures and uncertainty in results. Effective communication as a competence becomes highly relevant in the physician's activity. Facilitating the understanding of the message requires continuous practice and an improvement process adapted to the context of health care. Conclusions. Surgical risk requires a clear and reliable methodology in its evaluation, communication and understanding among the actors of the health system. Their presence is associated with the professional activity of doctors and requires skills that allow a non-linear approach to the subject. It is a professional activity that must be empowered to improve health outcomes and the quality of interventions.

Análisis de los formatos de consentimiento informado en los establecimientos de salud Reflexiones bioéticas y jurídicas en el contexto peruano

en la actividad asistencial desarrollada por los profesionales de la salud, el consentimiento informado (CI) instrumentaliza la aquiescencia otorgada por el paciente respecto al procedimiento y/o intervención quirúrgica. Existe una regulación dispersa en el ordenamiento legal peruano en relación con el CI. En el ámbito del sistema interamericano se resuelven precedentes importantes que establecen el contenido mínimo que se debe informar al paciente previo al consentimiento. Se evalúo el cumplimiento de 22 elementos necesarios y nueve deseables en los formatos de CI, en atención al ordenamiento normativo vigente y a lo previsto a nivel supranacional por la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH). Dichas categorías fueron validadas mediante el juicio de expertos abogados y profesionales de la salud. La población objetivo estuvo conformada por 456 formatos de consentimiento aplicados en los establecimientos de salud públicos de Lima Metropolitana, durante los años 2019-2021. En todos los formatos se cumplen los elementos necesarios asociados con datos del paciente, el profesional de la salud y el nombre del procedimiento o intervención quirúrgica. No hay elemento deseable que se cumpla en la totalidad de estos formatos. En ese sentido, se advierten brechas en el contenido de los esos formatos en los establecimientos de salud peruanos, por lo que se debe reivindicar el aspecto informativo para lograr actos de consentimiento plenamente eficaces.

in the healthcare activity carried out by health professionals, informed consent (IC) instrumentalizes the acquiescence of the patient concerning the procedure and/or surgical intervention. There is a scattered regulation in the Peruvian legal system about IC. In the Inter-American system, essential precedents establish the minimum content the patient should be informed of before consent. Compliance with 22 necessary elements and nine desirable elements in the IC forms was evaluated under the current legal system and the supranational provisions of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR Court). These categories were validated through the judgment of expert lawyers and health professionals. The target population consisted of 456 consent forms applied in public health facilities in Metropolitan Lima from 2019-2021. In all the formats, the necessary elements associated with patient data, the health professional, and the name of the procedure or surgical intervention are fulfilled. There is no desirable element that is fulfilled in all of these formats. In this sense, there are gaps in the content of these forms in Peruvian health facilities, so the informative aspect should be vindicated to achieve fully effective acts of consent.

na atividade assistencial desenvolvida pelos profissionais da saúde, o consentimento informado (CI) instrumentaliza a aquiescência outorgada pelo paciente a respeito do procedimento e/ou intervenção cirúrgica. Existe uma regulamentação dispersa no ordenamento legal peruano com relação ao CI. No âmbito do sistema interamericano, são resolvidos precedentes importantes que estabelecem o conteúdo mínimo que deve ser informado ao paciente prévio ao consentimento. Foi avaliado o cumprimento de 22 elementos necessários e nove desejáveis nos modelos de CI, em atenção ao ordenamento normativo vigente e ao previsto no âmbito supranacional pela Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos (Corte IDH). Essas categorias foram validadas mediante o julgamento de especialistas advogados e profissionais da saúde. A população-alvo esteve conformada por 456 formulários de consentimento aplicados nos estabelecimentos de saúde públicos de Lima Metropolitana, durante 2019-2021. Em todos os formulários, são cumpridos os elementos necessários associados com dados do paciente, o profissional da saúde e o nome do procedimento ou intervenção cirúrgica. Não há elemento desejável que se cumpra na totalidade desses formulários. Nesse sentido, são apresentadas lacunas no conteúdo desses formulários nos estabelecimentos de saúde peruanos, por isso o aspecto informacional deve ser reivindicado para conseguir atos de consentimento plenamente eficazes.

Physicians' health care / [El cuidado de la salud de los médicos.]

Introduction: The programs of the Medicine Careers of Córdoba do not describe aspects related to the management of the doctor-patient relationship when the patient is a colleague. The main objective is to describe these aspects. Material and methods: An observational, prospective, cross-sectional and analytical study was carried out. A validated survey was sent by email to doctors in Córdoba, Argentina. Results: Of the 225 physicians who responded, 76% did not have a family doctor. The youngest and those who attend in the public sphere made up this group (p<0,0002 and p<0.04 respectively). 86,2% self-medicated in the last year. Self-medication was more frequent among young physicians (p<0,0008) and with fewer years of professional practice (p<0,003). This group, regardless of whether they worked in the public or private sphere, continued to work despite having some disease and although they could have requested sick leave. The oldest doctors (p<0,0002) and with more than 25 years of professional practice experienced assisting colleagues (p<0,0002). 74,2% did not modify clinical care, but 82,7% answered that at some point they did commit more than usual. Conclusion: Young doctors do not have a family doctor, resort to self-medication, request less sick leave, even though they need it, and have little experience treating colleagues. Content should be incorporated during undergraduate and graduate medicine training that address the risks of illness and self-medication for physicians, how to seek the best care for their own health and that of their colleague.

Introducción: Los programas de las Carreras de Medicina de Córdoba no describen aspectos relacionados al manejo de la relación médico paciente cuando el paciente es un colega. El objetivo principal es describir estos aspectos. Material y métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional, prospectivo, transversal y analítico. Se envió por email una encuesta validada a médicos de Córdoba, Argentina. Resultados: El 76% de los 225 médicos que respondieron la encuesta no tenía médico de cabecera. Los más jóvenes y quienes atienden en el ámbito público conformaron este grupo (p<0,0002 y p<0,04 respectivamente). El 86,2 % se automedicó en el último año. La automedicación fue más frecuente entre los jóvenes (p<0,0008) y con menos años de ejercicio profesional (p<0,003). Este grupo, independientemente de si trabajaban en ámbito público o privado, es el que siguió trabajando a pesar de cursar alguna patología y aunque podría haber solicitado una licencia por enfermedad. Los médicos de más edad (p<0,0002) y con más de 25 años de ejercicio profesional vivenciaron la asistencia a colegas (p<0,0002). El 74,2% no modificó la atención clínica, pero 82,7% respondió que alguna vez sí se comprometió más de lo habitual. Conclusión: Los médicos jóvenes no poseen médico de cabecera, recurren a automedicación, solicitan menos licencia por enfermedad, aunque la necesiten, y tienen poca experiencia para tratar colegas. Deberían incorporarse contenidos durante la formación de Medicina de grado y posgrado que aborden los riesgos de enfermedad y automedicación en médicos, cómo buscar el mejor cuidado para su propia salud y la del colega.

Una aproximación a la dignidad del trabajo médico / The dignity of medical work. A qualitative approach

BACKGROUND: A work that dignifies, that is adequately rewarded and is carried out with social protection is considered decent by the International Labor Organization. AIM: To describe and understand the different dimensions of the dignity of medical work from the perspective of Chilean male and female doctors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From a qualitative approach, the first stage of the study consisted in the application of an open response survey which was answered by doctors from all over the country. The second stage consisted in discussion instances about dignity of medical work. In the third stage, semi-structured in-depth interviews with doctors of both sexes and of different generations were conducted. The analysis of the data was carried out following the approaches of the Grounded Theory. RESULTS: The concept of dignity of medical work arises from a historical process of social conquest and implies the recognition of the rights of professionals and patients. Optimal conditions are required to provide quality health care. However, even in unworthy conditions, doctors do everything possible to provide a decent care. The need to humanize the relationships that occur in the context of health care is proposed. Carrying out medical work with excellence and professionalism contributes to personal fulfillment. Associativity contributes to dignify medical work. CONCLUSIONS: The dignity of medical work is understood by doctors as a polysemic and relational concept.

Identidade médica: o impacto do primeiro contato com pacientes na empatia do estudante de Medicina / Medical identity: the impact of first contact with patient in medicine student's empathy

Resumo: Introdução: Empatia é definida como a capacidade de ouvir e compreender o outro, e, portanto, é um componente essencial na relação médico-paciente. Estudos apontam que proporcionar aos alunos a oportunidade de contato com o paciente logo no início do curso desperta a consciência da importância da empatia nas relações. Dessa forma, tal contato, nos primeiros semestres da Faculdade de Medicina, permite que os estudantes potencializem suas habilidades empáticas, oportunizando a construção de uma identidade profissional mais ampla e completa. Objetivo: O estudo tem como objetivo avaliar a influência do contato com o paciente na disciplina de Semiologia I, durante o segundo ano da graduação, sobre a empatia de estudantes de Medicina. Método: Trata-se de um estudo observacional e prospectivo, realizado com estudantes de Medicina de uma faculdade privada em Vitória, no Espírito Santo, matriculados na disciplina teórico-prática Semiologia I em 2019/2 e 2020/1, por meio de aplicação de questionários antes da primeira atividade prática em enfermaria e após a última. Analisaram-se as variáveis sociodemográficas e o escore de empatia. Diferenças entre os semestres foram avaliadas pelos testes qui-quadrado, exato de Fisher e de Mann-Whitney. Com os testes de Mann-Whitney e Kruskal-Wallis, investigou-se a relação entre as variáveis sociodemográficas e a empatia. A influência do contato com o paciente na empatia foi averiguada pelo teste de Wilcoxon, todos com 95% de significância. Resultado: Participaram do estudo 38 alunos em 2019/2 e 60 em 2020/1. Foram significativas somente as associações entre o contato com o paciente nas enfermarias e o escore de empatia (p = 0,008), e entre o sexo e o escore de empatia (p = 0,000), sendo esta maior para mulheres e ao final da experiência da disciplina. Conclusão: A disciplina Semiologia I se mostrou capaz de afetar positivamente a empatia, que se apresentou maior no sexo feminino, corroborando a literatura. Os resultados obtidos refletem somente um semestre específico do curso, não o perfil global de empatia dos estudantes, os níveis de empatia em momentos distintos da graduação ou o comportamento dos discentes.

Abstract: Introduction: Empathy is defined as the ability to listen and understand the other, thus becoming an essential component in the doctor-patient relationship. Studies indicate that the opportunity to make contact with the patient early in the course raises awareness of the importance of empathy in the relationships. Thus, such contact, in the first semesters of medical school, enables students to enhance their empathic skills, permitting the construction of a broader and more complete professional identity. Objective: The study aims to evaluate the influence on the empathy of medical students through the interaction with patients in the discipline of Semiology I, during the second year of undergraduate school. Method: Observational and prospective study with medical students from a private medical school in Vitória (ES), enrolled in the theoretical-practical discipline of Semiology I in 2019/2 and 2020/1, through the application of questionnaires, before the first practical activity in the ward and after the last one. Sociodemographic variables and empathy score were analyzed. The differences between the semesters were evaluated by Chi-square, Fisher's exact or Mann-Whitney tests. The relationship between sociodemographic variables and empathy was assessed by the Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests. The influence of contact with patients on students' empathy was analyzed by the Wilcoxon test, all with 95% significance. Results: The sample consisted of 38 students in 2019/2 and 60 in 2020/1. Only the associations between contact with the patients in the wards and the empathy score (p=0.008) and gender and the empathy score (p=0.000) were significant; empathy was greater among women and at the end of the discipline experience. Conclusion: The interaction between medical students and patients during the discipline of Semiology I was able to positively affect empathy, corroborating the literature. The higher levels of empathy among women also corroborate the literature. The obtained results reflect only a specific semester of the course, not the students' overall empathy profile, levels of empathy at different moments of undergraduate school, or their behavior.

Empatia em estudantes de Medicina: análise em função do período da graduação e perfil sociodemográfico / Empathy in medical students: analysis as a function of the undergraduate period and sociodemographic profile

Resumo: Introdução: A empatia, tida como uma das características mais marcantes dos grandes profissionais médicos, é o elemento central da relação médico-paciente e do cuidado centrado na pessoa. Objetivo: Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar como se manifestam os níveis de empatia em estudantes de Medicina ao longo da graduação. Método: Trata-se de um estudo de natureza quantitativa, analítica, observacional e transversal, realizado numa instituição privada de ensino superior, situada no Nordeste do Brasil. A pesquisa se deu por meio da aplicação da Escala Jefferson de Empatia Médica - versão para estudantes (JSPE-vs) e da correlação dos dados obtidos na escala com o período da graduação e o perfil sociodemográfico dos estudantes, a fim de verificar quais correlações se mostram significativas para a expressão dos níveis de empatia dos estudantes, bem como se há erosão dela durante a formação. A coleta de dados ocorreu entre os meses de outubro e novembro de 2020. Contou com 193 participantes entre ingressantes, intermediários e concluintes do curso de Medicina. A amostragem utilizada foi por acessibilidade e conveniência. Resultados: A pontuação média global do nível de empatia no conjunto de todos os participantes do estudo (n = 193) foi de 123,56 ± 11,73. Quanto ao período, obteve-se o seguinte resultado: ingressantes = 124,78 ± 9,85, intermediários = 124,00 ± 11,87 e concluintes = 120,63 ± 13,57. Não se verificou diferença estatística entre os escores global ou por fator na comparação entre os três grupos estudados. E na correlação da JSPE-vs com o perfil sociodemográfico, as variáveis sexo feminino e motivo de escolha do curso por vocação foram preditoras de escores maiores de empatia. Conclusão: Não se evidenciou erosão dos níveis de empatia nos estudantes de Medicina ao longo da graduação, e os discentes do sexo feminino e aqueles que escolheram o curso por se sentirem vocacionados para tal mostraram níveis de empatia significativamente maiores. Mais estudos sobre esse tema são fundamentais, tendo em vista a importância de uma postura técnico-científico-humanística equilibrada para o exercício de uma medicina de excelência.

Abstract: Introduction: Empathy, considered one of the most remarkable characteristics of great medical professionals, is the central element of the doctor-patient relationship and of person-centered care. Objective: To investigate how levels of empathy are manifested in medical students throughout their undergraduate course. Method: This is a quantitative, analytical, observational and cross-sectional study, carried out in a private higher education institution, located in the northeast of Brazil. The research was carried out by applying the Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Student version (JSE-S) and the correlation of the data obtained in the scale with the undergraduate school period and sociodemographic profile of the students, aiming to verify which correlations were significant for the expression of students' empathy levels, as well as whether there is an erosion during training. Data collection took place between the months of October and November 2020. The study assessed 193 participants, including students attending the first year, an intermediate year and last year of the medical course. The sampling method used was by accessibility and convenience. Results: The global average score of the level of empathy in the group of all study participants (n = 193) was 123.56 ± 11.73. Whereas, by period, it was 124.78 ± 9.85 for first-year students, 124.00 ± 11.87 for intermediate-year students and 120.63 ± 13.57 for last-year students. There was no statistical difference between global scores or by psychometric factor when comparing the three studied groups. As for the correlation of JSE-S with the sociodemographic profile, the variables female gender and reason for choosing the course due to vocation were predictors of higher empathy scores. Conclusion: There was no evidence of empathy erosion regarding the levels of empathy among medical students throughout their undergraduate course, and female students and those who chose the course because they felt they had a vocation for Medicine showed significantly higher levels of empathy. More studies on this topic are essential, considering the importance of a balanced technical-scientific-humanistic posture to enable a medical practice of excellence.

Comunicación médico-paciente en enfermos de cáncer en etapa terminal: una visión desde la experiencia de los familiares / Doctor-Patient Communication in End-Stage Cancer Patients: a View From the Experience of Family / Comunicação médico-paciente em pacientes com câncer em estágio terminal: uma perspectiva a partir da experiência de familiares

Resumen: Uno de los elementos prioritarios en la ética médica es la relación médico-paciente. La comunicación es fundamental para que los enfermos y sus familiares puedan tomar decisiones al final de la vida. El objetivo del artículo es conocer, a partir de la experiencia de los familiares de los enfermos de cáncer en etapa terminal, la información oportuna que proporciona el médico sobre el pronóstico y las condiciones del enfermo para tomar decisiones que alivien las molestias o el sufrimiento. Se llevó a cabo un estudio cualitativo que parte del paradigma hermenéutico fenomenológico, el cual permite conocer la percepción que tienen las personas del mundo en el cual viven y el significado que le dan. Se entrevistó a once familiares y cuidadores primarios y se utilizó el análisis temático y el método de van Manen. La experiencia de los familiares muestra que algunos enfermos no recibieron información acerca de su condición y pronóstico. Se puede concluir que algunos de los médicos necesitan capacitación mediante reuniones en donde un profesional de la salud mental dirija sesiones sobre las emociones para afrontar situaciones relacionadas con la muerte y manejar la angustia.

Summary: One of the priority elements in medical ethics is the physician-patient relationship. Communication is essential so patients and their families can make decisions at the end of life. The main aim of this article is to be aware, from the experience of patients with terminal cancer relatives, the timely information provided by the physician about the prognosis and conditions of the patient to make decisions that alleviate discomfort or suffering. A qualitative study was carried out starting from the phenomenological hermeneutic paradigm, which allows us to know the perception people have of the world in which they live and the meaning they give it. Eleven family members and primary caregivers were interviewed using the van Manen's thematic analysis and method. The experience of family members shows that some patients did not receive information about their condition and prognosis. It can be concluded that some of the physicians need training through meetings where a mental health professional leads sessions on emotions to cope with situations related to death and manage distress.

Resumo: Um dos elementos prioritários da ética médica é a relação médico-paciente. A comunicação é essencial para que os pacientes e suas famílias tomem decisões no final da vida. O objetivo deste artigo é conhecer, a partir da experiência de familiares de pacientes com câncer em estágio terminal, as informações oportunas fornecidas pelo médico sobre o prognóstico e as condições do paciente para que decisões que aliviem o desconforto ou o sofrimento possam ser tomadas. Foi reali -zado um estudo qualitativo baseado no paradigma hermenêutico fenomenológico, que nos permite conhecer a percepção que as pessoas têm do mundo em que vivem e o significado que elas dão a ele. Onze familiares e cuidadores primários foram entrevistados e a análise temática e o método de van Manen foram utilizados. A experiência dos familiares mostra que alguns pacientes não receberam informações sobre sua condição e prognóstico. Pode-se concluir que alguns médicos precisam de treinamento por meio de reuniões em que um profissional de saúde mental realize sessões sobre emoções para lidar com situações relacionadas à morte e a como lidar com a angústia.

Teleconsulta médica. Análisis y recomendaciones del Departamento de Ética del Colegio Médico de Chile / Medical teleconsultation. Analysis and recommendations from the ethics department of the Chilean medical association

The possibility of allowing patients access to health professionals, has been greatly facilitated by advances in technology. Indeed, nowadays it is possible not only direct contact between one health professional with another, but also the possibility of sending images and other tests to consult distant colleagues. This has undoubtedly enabled better health care for many patients. It is also possible for a patient to consult a doctor directly in a remote and synchronous way with oral and visual contact, thus establishing a new form of medical consultation. It is this last way of relationship, which has already spread as a practice in normal times, which arouses apprehensions about the ethical requirements that a consultation must meet. This work by the Ethics Department of the Chilean Medical Association seeks to reflect on the ethical demands of a medical consultation and on the shortcomings that teleconsultation has. It also aims to propose several recommendations, so that this new form of doctor-patient relationship serves as a complement to traditional care, without jeopardizing the objectives of a medical action.

Reclamos por atención en salud: experiencia en un centro privado / Analysis of healthcare claims received at an audit unit of a clinical hospital

Background: The resolution of claims at healthcare institutions is an important issue for administrators. Aim: To analyze the causes of healthcare-related claims in a private, clinical health center. Material and Methods: All claims processed at the audit unit of a clinical hospital between 2016 and 2019 were analyzed. Results: In the study period, 602 complaints were recorded, representing a rate of one claim for every 1,000 services provided. The two main causes of complaints were sub-standard interaction with the doctor such as communication or lack of empathy, corresponding to 21% of cases, and complaints related to care costs, quotes, and insurance coverage (21%). The highest number of complaints originated in emergency care, but the highest rate by number of healthcare services provided occurred in hospitalization in the Mental Health and the Adult Critical Care units. Roughly, 75% of the complaints were settled with a phone call to the patient, which allowed to explain what happened and to apologize accordingly. In 21% of the cases, one or more meetings were held with the patient, a family member, or his/her legal representative to settle an agreement. In 3.5% of cases a mediation process through an independent third party was required. Only 1% of the claims resulted in a legal action. Conclusions: The importance of cultivating an adequate physician-patient relationship for the prevention of complaints and eventual litigations associated with the provision of healthcare services, is emphasized. Quality control policies and processes within healthcare organizations should be strengthened.

Uso de medicina complementaria y alternativa y su asociación con la relación médico-paciente en enfermos con artritis reumatoide / Association between physician-patient relationship and the use of complementary and alternative medicine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

RESUMEN Introducción: El uso de medicina complementaria y alternativa (MCA) en pacientes con enfermedades reumáticas es prevalente pero la comunicación con el reumatólogo suele ser deficiente, lo cual afecta la relación médico-paciente (RMP). Objetivos: Evaluar la asociación entre el uso de MCA y la RMP en enfermos con artritis reumatoide. Como objetivos adicionales, describir la percepción del paciente sobre la comunicación con su reumatólogo respecto al uso de MCA y el patrón de uso de las diferentes modalidades terapéuticas. Materiales y métodos: Estudio descriptivo de corte transversal. El uso de MCA y la RMP se evaluaron mediante la autoaplicación de cuestionarios validados (I-CAM-Q y PDRQ-9 respectivamente). Resultados: Se incluyó a 246 pacientes ambulatorios de una institución de tercer nivel de atención. Se encontró asociación entre una mayor satisfacción con el tratamiento y el no usar MCA, y entre el hecho de informar al reumatólogo sobre el uso de MCA con un mayor grado de acuerdo con el médico sobre el origen de los síntomas y mayor satisfacción con el tratamiento. Las modalidades más frecuentemente utilizadas fueron: quiropraxia, acupuntura y productos herbales. El 78,5% afirmaron estar de acuerdo con comunicar el uso de este tipo de medicación al reumatólogo, sin embargo, solo el 31,3% lo notificó, por temor a represalias (54,4%). Conclusiones: Pese a la alta prevalencia de uso de MCA en nuestros pacientes, la mayoría no lo comunicó al reumatólogo. Se encontró asociación entre el uso de MCA y una menor satisfacción del paciente con el tratamiento y entre la comunicación médico-paciente sobre la práctica de MCA y una mejor satisfacción con el tratamiento.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Although complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use among patients with rheumatic diseases is extensive, discussions regarding these treatments occur rarely in the rheumatology setting, directly affecting the physician-patient relationship (PPR). Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between patient-physician relationship and complementary and alternative medicine use. As secondary objectives, to describe the patient's perspective towards CAM use and estimate the prevalence of CAM treatments used in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Methods and materials: A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted, in which CAM use and physician-patient relationship were assessed by self-reported validated questionnaires (I-CAM-Q and PDRQ-9, respectively). Results: The study included a total of 246 outpatients of a tertiary care hospital. There were no significant differences between CAM users vs. non-users, or informers vs. non-informers in terms of physician-patient relationship measured by PDQR. The most frequent used CAM treatments were: chiropractice, acupuncture, and herbal products. A large majority (78.5%) of the patients expressed agreement to the discussion of CAM use with the rheumatologist, but only 31.3% of total CAM users did so because of fear of retaliation (54.4%). Conclusion: Despite the extensive practice of CAM among patients with rheumatoid arthritis, most patients did not discuss these treatments with their physicians. Associations were found between MCA use and a lower patient's treatment satisfaction and between physician-patient communication about CAM practice and a higher patient's treatment satisfaction.

Habilidades sociais e satisfação profissional de médicos que atendem em contexto ambulatorial / Social skills and professional satisfaction of physicians who attend in an outpatient setting / Habilidades sociales y satisfacción profesional de médicos que atienden en contexto de ambulatorio

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar o repertório de habilidades sociais (HS) e a satisfação profissional (SP) de médicos que atendem em contexto ambulatorial. Adotou-se delineamento descritivo, correlacional e transversal. Quarenta e seis médicos, selecionados via amostragem não probabilística, responderam a um Protocolo de Caracterização Individual e ao Inventário de HS2 - versão preliminar. Os principais resultados indicaram: (a) bom repertório, acima da média, para o escore total de HS; (b) bom repertório, abaixo da média, para Conversação e Desenvoltura Social e Assertividade Afetivo-Sexual; bom repertório, acima da média, para Assertividade de Autodefesa e Assertividade de Autoexposição Social; e repertório bastante elaborado para Expressão de Sentimentos Positivos; e (c) correlação positiva entre HS e SP. Um bom repertório de HS facilita ao estabelecimento de um bom vínculo terapêutico, serve de fator de proteção contra o estresse e outros problemas mentais e possibilita a satisfação profissional.

This study aimed to characterize the repertory of Social Skills (SS) and professional satisfaction (PS) of physicians who attend in an outpatient setting. A descriptive, correlational and cross-sectional design was adopted. Forty-six physicians, selected through non-probabilistic sampling, answered to an Individual Characterization Protocol and the SS Inventory 2 - preliminary version. The main results indicated: (a) good repertory, above average, for the total SS score; (b) good repertoire, below average, for Conversation and Social Resourcefulness and Affective-Sexual Assertiveness; a good repertoire, above average, for Self-Defense Assertiveness and Social Self-Exposition Assertiveness; and a very elaborate repertoire for Expression of Positive Feelings; and (c) positive correlation between SS and PS. A good repertoire of SS facilitates the establishment of a good therapeutic link, works as a protector factor against stress and other mental health problems and makes possible the professional satisfaction.

Este estudio objetivó analizar el repertorio de habilidades sociales (HS) y la satisfacción profesional (SP) de médicos que atienden en contexto de ambulatorio. Se adoptó delineamiento descriptivo, correlacional y transversal. Cuarenta y seis médicos, seleccionados mediante muestreo no probabilístico, respondieron a un Protocolo de Caracterización y al Inventario de HS2 - versión preliminar. Los resultados indicaron: (a) buen repertorio, por encima de la media, para el puntaje total de HS; (b) buen repertorio, por debajo de la media, para Conversación y Desenvoltura Social y Asertividad Afectivo-Sexual; buen repertorio, por encima de la media, para Asertividad de Autodefensa y Asertividad de Autoexposición Social; y un repertorio bastante elaborado para Expresión de Sentimientos Positivos; y (c) correlación positiva entre HS y SP. Un buen repertorio de HS facilita el establecimiento del vínculo terapéutico, funciona como factor de protección contra el estrés y otros problemas mentales y posibilita la satisfacción profesional.

Invisibilidad del adulto mayor con VIH/SIDA: La percepción del médico de atención primaria en Tabasco (México) / Invisibility of older adults with HIV/AIDS: The primary care physician's perception in Tabasco (Mexico)

RESUMEN Objetivo: Interpretar la percepción de los médicos de atención primaria sobre las condiciones sociales y sanitarias que intervienen en la invisibilidad del paciente adulto mayor con VIH/SIDA en Tabasco (México). Materiales y métodos: Bajo el enfoque de teoría fundamentada se realizó un estudio cualitativo durante agosto de 2018. Se formó un grupo focal integrado por médicos tratantes de diversas instituciones del sistema de salud. Se empleó una guía de entrevista y para su análisis se utilizó el software MAXQDA versión 2018.2. Resultados: La invisibilidad del paciente adulto mayor en el ámbito sanitario se refleja en las limitaciones institucionales relacionadas con el tiempo de atención que no facilitan la labor del médico para reconocer los aspectos clínicos y emocionales. Otro factor es la hegemonía médica que no permite tomar en cuenta la opinión del enfermo y no explora la existencia de la práctica sexual en esa fase de la vida. Ambos aspectos son condicionantes de un diagnóstico tardío de VIH/SIDA. Conclusiones: El constante aumento de adultos mayores infectados y la expansión geográfica de la enfermedad deben ser indicadores potenciales para los gestores y profesiones de salud para establecer prioridades en la atención y el control del VIH/SIDA.

ABSTRACT Objective: To read into the perception of primary care physicians about the social and sanitary conditions which deals with the older adults patient invisibility with AIDS in Tabasco (México). Materials and methods: Focusing through the sustained theory a qualitative study was done during August 2018. A focal group integrated of treating physicians from different Health Systems institutions was formed. It was used an interview guide and it was also used the MAXQDA software version 2018.2 for analysing it. Results: The invisibility of the older adult patients in the sanitary scope is reflected in the institutional related limitations with the care time which do not facilitate the physicians work to recognize the clinical and emotional aspects. Another factor is the physician hegemony that does not allow to take into account the opinion of the patient and does not explore the existence of sexual practice in this phase of life. Both aspects are condition of HIV/AIDS late diagnosis. Conclusions: The constant older adults infected increase and the geographic expansion of the sickness, must be potential indicators to health professionals and promoters to establish priorities in HIV/AIDS attention and control.

Video-based feedback using real consultations for a formative assessment in communication skills.

BACKGROUND: Pre-recorded videotapes have become the standard approach when teaching clinical communication skills (CCS). Furthermore, video-based feedback (VF) has proven to be beneficial in formative assessments. However, VF in CCS with the use of pre-recorded videos from real-life settings is less commonly studied than the use of simulated patients. To explore: 1) perceptions about the potential benefits and challenges in this kind of VF; 2) differences in the CCC scores in first-year medical residents in primary care, before and after a communication program using VF in a curricular formative assessment. METHOD: We conducted a pre/post study with a control group. The intervention consisted of VF sessions regarding CCS, performed in a small group with peers and a facilitator. They reviewed clinical consultations pre-recorded in a primary care setting with real patients. Before and after the intervention, 54 medical residents performed two clinical examinations with simulated patients (SP), answered quantitative scales (Perception of Patient-Centeredness and Jefferson Empathy Scale), and semi-structured qualitative questionnaires. The performances were scored by SP (Perception of Patient-Centeredness and CARE scale) and by two blind raters (SPIKES protocol-based and CCOG-based scale). The quantitative data analysis employed repeated-measures ANOVA. The qualitative analysis used the Braun and Clarke framework for thematic analysis. RESULTS: The quantitative analyses did not reveal any significant differences in the sum scores of the questionnaires, except for the Jefferson Empathy Scale. In the qualitative questionnaires, the main potential benefits that emerged from the thematic analysis of the VF method were self-perception, peer-feedback, patient-centered approach, and incorporation of reflective practices. A challenging aspect that emerged from facilitators was the struggle to relate the VF with theoretical references and the resident's initial stress to record and watch oneself on video. CONCLUSION: VF taken from real-life settings seems to be associated with a significant increase in self-perceived empathy. The study of other quantitative outcomes related to this VF intervention needs larger sample sizes. VF with clinical patients from real healthcare settings appears to be an opportunity for a deeper level of self-assessment, peer-feedback, and reflective practices.

Medical error: concept, characterization and management / Erro médico: conceito, caracterização e gestão

Abstract The objective of this study is to better understand the tensions involved in the fear of making an error due to the harm and risk this would pose to those involved. This is a qualitative study based on the narratives of the experiences lived by ten acting physicians in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The concept and characterization of errors were discussed, as well as the fear of making an error, the near misses or error in itself, how to deal with errors and what to do to avoid them. The analysis indicates an excessive pressure in the medical profession for error-free practices, with a well-established physician-patient relationship to facilitate the management of medical errors. The error occurs but the lack of information and discussion often leads to its concealment due to fear of possible judgment by society or peers. The establishment of programs that encourage appropriate medical conduct in the event of an error requires coherent answers for humanization in Brazilian medical science.

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo é compreender as tensões presentes no medo de errar por conta dos riscos e danos que tal erro causaria aos envolvidos. Este é um estudo qualitativo baseado nas narrativas das experiências de 10 médicos atuantes no estado de São Paulo, Brasil. O conceito e a caracterização do erro foram discutidos, bem como o medo de cometê-lo, a proximidade com o erro, como lidar com ele e como evitá-lo. A análise aponta pressões excessivas no tocante a práticas sem erros na profissão médica, considerando a existência de uma relação médico-paciente bem estabelecida de forma a facilitar a gestão de erros médicos. Erros médicos ocorrem, mas a falta de informação e discussão sobre o tema costuma levar ao seu encobrimento, uma vez que médicos temem o possível julgamento feito pela sociedade e por seus pares. O estabelecimento de programas que encorajem a conduta médica apropriada caso um erro ocorra requer respostas coerentes para a humanização da ciência médica no Brasil.

Ética en la investigación y la práctica clínica: Un binomio complejo / Ethics in research and clinical practice: A complex pairing

La investigación en salud es vital para el avance de la ciencia y el desarrollo de un país. Sin embargo, investigar con ética en la práctica clínica diaria es un proceso lento. Diversos factores juegan un rol crítico al inicio de cualquier investigación: el centro laboral, el momento adecuado, los recursos con los que se cuenta, la cantidad de sujetos de estudio que se podría involucrar y hasta el entorno sociofamiliar propicio del investigador. Todos estos factores están relacionados de forma directa o indirecta con problemas éticos entre el médico investigador y el paciente o sujeto de investigación; más aún en países como el Perú, donde el bajo nivel educativo de la población acrecienta cierta postura de poder del médico. Asimismo, la aparición de nuevas áreas en la Medicina como los cuidados paliativos, la reproducción humana asistida, la terapia genética y la ingeniería de tejidos hacen aún más complejo este binomio.

Health research is vital for the advancement of science and development in a country. However, researching with ethics in daily clinical practice is a slow process. Several factors play a critical role at the beginning of any investigation: the workplace, the right time, the resources with which it is counted, the number of study subjects that could be involved and even the socio familiar environment of the researcher. All these factors are directly or indirectly related to ethical problems between the doctor researcher and the patient or research subject; even more in countries like Peru, where the low educational level of the population increases a certain position of power of the doctor. Likewise, the appearance of new areas in Medicine such as palliative care, assisted human reproduction, gene therapy and tissue engineering make this pairing even more complex.

El "paciente difícil" y profesionalismo médico / The "difficult patient" and medical professionalism

En el presente artículo se revisan las características que definen al "paciente difícil" entendiendo que esta realidad se comprende mejor como una "relación difícil médico-paciente". Bajo una mirada antropológica se repasan las bases que componen el encuentro entre el médico y un paciente, para transmitir algunas recomendaciones sobre cómo mejorar este singular encuentro, a fin de que se genere una mayor satisfacción y beneficio para ambos. Surge como recomendación considerar los elementos constitutivos del profesionalismo médico, teniendo especialmente presente la autonomía del paciente, la primacía del bienestar del mismo y una actitud de servicio y compasión por el enfermo, por parte del médico. Si a ello se une el esfuerzo por una mirada empática, se puede esperar una mejor relación entre este binomio.

This article reviews the features that characterize the "difficult patient", which is a concept defined on the basis of a "difficult physician-patient relationship". It reviews the fundamentals of the physician-patient relationship from an anthropological point of view and provides recommendations to improve it in a way that it is more beneficial and provides greater satisfaction for both parties. The article suggests physician should seek to achieve high levels of medical professionalism by respecting the patient's autonomy and seeking her well-being at all times, while showing compassion and a service attitude towards her. In addition to this, a more empathetic attitude towards the patient can also contribute to improving the relationship.