Clinical and hematological findings in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) with and without Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae infection.

Anemia is a common problem in South American camelids (SACs). Infections with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae (CMh), a cell-wall free, hemotropic bacterium, are often suspected to be an important cause of anemia, as the pathogen infects the erythrocytes and is found in the blood of up to 30% of SACs. The information on the clinical signs of animals infected with this pathogen vary widely. Most infections are clinically inapparent. Treatment is usually carried out with oxytetracycline. A detailed overview of the clinical and hematological findings in 13 alpacas infected with Candidatus M. haemolamae (CMh+), based on patients from our university clinic and comparing those findings with the results of 22 negative alpacas (CMh-) is provided. Assignment to both groups was based on the PCR result. No relevant clinical or hematological differences between CMh+ and CMh- were found, the clinical signs in CMh+ were usually due to comorbidities. The examination of a blood smear alone proved to be insufficient; a PCR test should be carried out to confirm or rule out an infection. A critical review of the need for antibiotic treatment on the basis of a positive test result alone is recommended.

Molecular identification of Sarcocystis aucheniae in the wild South American camelid Vicugna vicugna.

Vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna) are wild South American camelids (SACs) protected by law in Argentina, and information on pathogens that infect them is scarce. In this study, an adult vicuña found dead in the province of Salta was examined, and evidence of infection by Sarcocystis sp. protozoans was sought. Infection of skeletal muscles by S. aucheniae, with the production of macroscopic sarcocysts, a disease known as SAC sarcocystosis, has been described in the other three SACs - llamas, alpacas, and guanacos - but its occurrence in vicuñas has so far remained unknown. In the analyzed individual, many macroscopic cysts compatible with S. aucheniae were found upon necropsy in the muscular tissue of the neck and diaphragm. Analysis of 18 S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox-1) gene sequences by BLAST searches and construction of phylogenetic trees demonstrated that the etiological agent was S. aucheniae. Our results show for the first time that vicuñas act as intermediate hosts in the life cycle of this parasite. In addition, this study provides the first cox-1 sequences for S. aucheniae isolates from the four SAC species acting as intermediate hosts and suggests that this marker could be useful for genotypification of this parasite species. The impact of SAC sarcocystosis on the health, well-being, and fitness of vicuñas, and the relevance of vicuña infections in the epidemiology of S. auchaniae, remain to be elucidated.

Fructosamine in llamas (Lama glama) is associated with sex, body condition score, and hematologic and serum parameters.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to provide orientation values for fructosamine in adult llamas and to characterize relationships with other laboratory and clinical parameters. ANIMALS: Data from 22 healthy adult llamas of both sexes. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted with the findings of a veterinary herd visit from August 2022. Fructosamine measured from plasma samples was characterized, and its relationships with clinical and laboratory diagnostic data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. RESULTS: Fructosamine was 311 ± 34 µmol/L (mean ± SD), with a range of 254.8 to 409.2 µmol/L. Males showed significantly higher plasma fructosamine levels than females (P < .05). Plasma fructosamine revealed significant positive correlations with glucose, total protein, and albumin and also with PCV, hemoglobin, calcium, sodium, and selenium. Female llamas revealed further positive correlations with body condition scoring. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study can be used as orientation values for fructosamine in llamas. Fructosamine is used to distinguish acute hyperglycemia caused by stress from chronic hyperglycemia in other species, which might be caused by disorders of the glucose metabolism.

Pathological findings in South American camelids presented at a farm animal clinic in Northern Germany (2005-2021).

To expand the knowledge about common diseases in llamas and alpacas in Germany, a screening of the cases of South American camelids presented at the Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants of the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany from 2005 to the end of November 2021 was performed. A retrospective evaluation of necropsy reports from this period was conducted. Overall, necropsy reports were evaluated from 187 alpacas, 35 llamas and one vicuña (n = 223). A total of 50.2% of the dissected animals were thin or cachectic. Pathological alterations of the gastrointestinal tract were the most common findings (44.8%). In addition, liver changes were recorded, most frequently in adult animals. In contrast, diseases of the respiratory tract and the nervous system were found more frequently in juvenile animals. This study provides an overview of common pathologies in South American camelids in Germany and thus may help to recognise different disease symptoms at an early stage.

Sarcocystis spp. of New and Old World Camelids: Ancient Origin, Present Challenges.

Sarcocystis spp. are coccidian protozoans belonging to the Apicomplexa phylum. As with other members of this phylum, they are obligate intracellular parasites with complex cellular machinery for the invasion of host cells. Sarcocystis spp. display dixenous life cycles, involving a predator and a prey as definitive and intermediate hosts, respectively. Specifically, these parasites develop sarcocysts in the tissues of their intermediate hosts, ranging in size from microscopic to visible to the naked eye, depending on the species. When definitive hosts consume sarcocysts, infective forms are produced in the digestive system and discharged into the environment via feces. Consumption of oocyst-contaminated water and pasture by the intermediate host completes the parasitic cycle. More than 200 Sarcocystis spp. have been described to infect wildlife, domestic animals, and humans, some of which are of economic or public health importance. Interestingly, Old World camelids (dromedary, domestic Bactrian camel, and wild Bactrian camel) and New World or South American camelids (llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuña) can each be infected by two different Sarcocystis spp: Old World camelids by S. cameli (producing micro- and macroscopic cysts) and S. ippeni (microscopic cysts); and South American camelids by S. aucheniae (macroscopic cysts) and S. masoni (microscopic cysts). Large numbers of Old and New World camelids are bred for meat production, but the finding of macroscopic sarcocysts in carcasses significantly hampers meat commercialization. This review tries to compile the information that is currently accessible regarding the biology, epidemiology, phylogeny, and diagnosis of Sarcocystis spp. that infect Old and New World camelids. In addition, knowledge gaps will be identified to encourage research that will lead to the control of these parasites.

Whole genome sequencing analysis of alpaca suggests TRPV3 as a candidate gene for the suri phenotype.

BACKGROUND: Alpaca is a domestic South American camelid probably arising from the domestication of two wild camelids, the vicugna and the guanaco. Two phenotypes are described for alpaca, known as huacaya and suri. Huacaya fleece is characterized by compact, soft, and highly crimped fibers, while suri fleece is longer, straight, less crimped, and lustrous. The gene variants determining these phenotypes are still unknown, although previous studies suggested a dominant inheritance of the suri. Based on that, the aim of this study was the identification of the gene variants determining alpaca coat phenotypes through whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis. RESULTS: The sample used includes two test-cross alpaca families, suri × huacaya, which produced two offspring, one with the suri phenotype and one with the huacaya phenotype. The analyzed sample was expanded through the addition of WGS data from six vicugnas and six guanacos; this because we assumed the absence of the gene variants linked to the suri phenotype in these wild species. The analysis of gene variant segregation with the suri phenotype, coupled with the filtering of gene variants present in the wild species, disclosed the presence in all the suri samples of a premature termination codon (PTC) in TRPV3 (transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 3), a gene known to be involved in hair growth and cycling, thermal sensation, cold tolerance and adaptation in several species. Mutations in TRPV3 were previously associated with the alteration of hair structure leading to an impaired formation of the hair canal and the hair shaft in mouse. This PTC in TRPV3, due to a G > T substitution (p.Glu475*), results in a loss of 290 amino acids from the canonical translated protein, plausibly leading to a physiological dysfunction. CONCLUSION: The present results suggest that the suri phenotype may arise from a TRPV3 gene variant which may explain some of the suri features such as its longer hair fibre with lower number of cuticular scales compared to huacaya.

Effective treatment of sarcoptic mange in an alpaca (Vicugna pacos) using fluralaner: a case report.

South American Camelids, including alpacas, have gained popularity in Europe as pets and prized wool sources. Skin health concerns, particularly mite infestations, have emerged as a notable problem in these animals. Sarcoptic mange can lead to severe itching, papules, and chronic symptoms such as alopecia, crusts, and emaciation if left untreated. This case report documents a 2-year-old female alpaca suffering from sarcoptic mange. Despite initial treatment with ivermectin, its condition worsened, leading to severe weight loss, abortion, and a continued presence of mites. Considering the lack of effective treatments for sarcoptic mange in alpacas and the unavailability of registered drugs for this species in Italy, fluralaner, a drug previously used in other animal species, has been administered orally at a dosage of 5 mg/kg. Within a week after the treatment with fluralaner, the patient exhibited significant improvement, including the resolution of itching, healing of skin lesions, and an increase in appetite. Follow-up skin scrapings confirmed the absence of mites, and the patient's condition continued to improve. Fluralaner demonstrated to be a highly effective and fast-acting treatment for sarcoptic mange in alpacas, offering potential economic benefits attributed to its single-dose administration.

Anaemia in South American camelids - an overview of clinical and laboratory diagnostics.

South American camelids (SACs) play an increasing role in veterinary care in Europe. Many alpacas or llamas presented to veterinarians suffer from anaemia, regularly with a packed cell volume (PCV) below 0.10 l/l, which is a life-threatening condition for the animals. This review article presents clinical and laboratory diagnostic tools for the diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. Clinical identification of anaemic animals can be performed by assessing the FAMACHA© score and the Body Condition Score (BCS), since anaemia in alpacas and llamas correlates with pale mucous membranes and a lowered BCS. Haematological examination of a blood sample can provide a more differentiated diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. A common finding is regenerative anaemia with an increased number of reticulocytes that is often caused by blood loss due to Haemonchus contortus. Changes in a blood smear from an alpaca or llama with regenerative anaemia may include normoblasts (nucleated red blood cells), anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, polychromasia, Howell-Jolly bodies or basophilic stippling. Furthermore, non-regenerative anaemia, often caused by trace element deficiency or cachexia, can also occur.

Identification of genomic regions associated with differences in fleece type in Huacaya and Suri alpacas (Vicugna pacos).

The difference in fleece type is the distinguishing trait between the two types of alpacas (Vicugna pacos), Huacaya and Suri. The Suri fleece type has been found to be inherited dominantly over the Huacaya type, resulting in offspring with the Suri phenotype. The aim of our study was to map genomic regions associated with the two different fleece types. In this study, 91 alpacas (54 Huacayas and 37 Suris) from Germany and Switzerland were genotyped using the 76k alpaca SNP array. Only 59k chromosome-localised markers map to the alpaca reference assembly VicPac3.1, and after quality control 49 866 SNPs, were retained for population structure assessment and to conduct a genome-wide association study. Both principal component and neighbour-joining tree analysis showed that the two fleece-type cohorts overlapped rather than forming two distinct clusters. Genome-wide significantly associated markers were observed in the scaffold region of chromosome 16 (NW_021964192.1), which contains a cluster of keratin genes. A haplotype predominantly found in Suri alpacas has been identified which supports dominant inheritance. Variant filtering of nine whole-genome sequenced alpacas from both fleece types in the critical interval of 0.4 Mb did not reveal perfect segregation of either fleece type for specific variants. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use the recently developed species-specific SNP array to identify genomic regions associated with differences in fleece type in alpacas. There are still some limitations, such as the preliminary status of the reference assembly and the incomplete annotation of the alpaca genome.

Body condition scoring in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama) - a scoping review.

Assessment of the body condition score (BCS) is an important tool to check the nutritional status of an animal, and thus can provide important information in herd management, but also in the veterinary examination of individual animals. In dairy farming, BCS has been recognized as an important parameter for a long time already, but over the years body condition scoring has also become more important for other species. Especially in South American camelids (SACs: alpacas and llamas), whose dense coat can hide a poor nutritional status for a long time, regular assessment of the BCS is recommended by different authors and organizations. To date, there are several instructions for the assessment of the BCS in SACs, which, however, differ significantly in some points. For a consistent approach, a total of 35 instructions for the BCS in SACs were compared in a scoping review. The spine, especially the lumbar vertebrae as well as the ribs were identified as the two main body sites recommended for assessing the BCS. Furthermore, the area between the front and rear leg and the pelvis were mentioned frequently; however, these body sites were discussed controversially. The paralumbar fossa, shoulder, and udder were only mentioned sporadically. Among the various scales, the 1-5 scale was mentioned most frequently, with the optimal BCS being 3. Nonetheless, physiological fluctuation due to breed, age, sex, pregnancy, and lactation have to be considered. The BCS should be assessed each time the animals are handled, but at least monthly. In contrast to body weight, the BCS reflects the nutritional status of an animal even after a single examination. The review showed that much of the available information on the assessment of BCS in SACs is based on practical experience rather than scientific evidence. Indeed, some of the assumptions made there might still have to be verified or modified.

Epidemiology of sarcoptic mange in free-ranging vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna): a cross-sectional study in Andean highland communities in Peru / Epidemiologia da sarna sarcóptica em vicunhas de vida livre (Vicugna vicugna): um estudo transversal em comunidades rurais alto andinas do Peru

Abstract Sarcoptic mange or scabies is a contagious parasitic skin disease that affects a wide range of domestic and wildlife species. A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence, molecular identification, and characteristics of sarcoptic mange in vicuñas. A total of 3,274 vicuñas were examined. Following ritual harvesting events ("chaccus") in 13 Andean communities. The presence of mange mites was determined by the skin scraping technique and confirmed by PCR analysis using specific primers for the ITS2 gene of Sarcoptes scabiei. The presence of mange mites was also confirmed by microscopy using samples taken from wallows. A data collection form was used to register the characteristics of the vicuñas sampled. The prevalence of sarcoptic mange was 4.9% (95% CI: 4.1 - 5.6%). All samples from wallows tested positive (9/9). Importantly, the presence of the species S. scabiei was molecularly confirmed. Adult females with regular body condition were more susceptible to sarcoptic mange, although the lesions were mild. This study confirms the presence of S. scabiei in semi-captive vicuñas and points to the possible role of wallows in the dissemination of Sarcoptes mites.

Resumo A sarna sarcóptica é uma doença parasitária contagiosa da pele que afeta uma ampla gama de espécies domésticas e selvagens. Um estudo transversal foi realizado para determinar a prevalência, identificação molecular e características da sarna sarcóptica em vicunhas. Foram avaliadas 3.274 vicunhas, capturadas durante o "Chaccus", em 13 comunidades rurais alto andinas do Peru. A presença do ácaro da sarna foi determinada pelo raspado de pele e confirmada pela técnica de PCR, com iniciadores específicos para o gene ITS2 de Sarcoptes scabiei e por microscopia nos chafurdeiros. Foi preenchida uma ficha de coleta de dados com as características das vicunhas analisadas. A prevalência de sarna sarcóptica em vicunhas foi de 4,9% (95% IC: 4,1 - 5,6%). Todas as amostras de chafurda testadas (9/9) foram positivas, e a presença de S. scabiei foi confirmada molecularmente. Fêmeas adultas com condições corporais regulares foram mais suscetíveis à sarna sarcóptica, embora as lesões fossem leves. O estudo confirma a presença de S. scabiei em vicunhas em semicativeiro de comunidades camponesas alto andinas do Peru que sofrem de sarna. Destaca-se, ainda, o papel das chafurdas das vicunhas na disseminação da sarna.

Most common diagnoses and antibiotics used in South American Camelid patients at a university clinic in Austria.

Knowledge of common diseases and their treatment in minor species, such as llamas and alpacas, is growing, but frequently drugs are not licensed in these species. Our aim was to evaluate frequent diagnoses and commonly applied antibiotics in patients of a university clinic with a particular focus on EMA Category B antibiotics, which are critically important for human health. We retrospectively analyzed anonymized patient records between 2005 and 2019 regarding the causes for antibiotic treatment and choice of antibiotic substance. The most frequent indications for antibiotic treatment were diseases of the digestive tract and perioperative prophylaxis for castrations. The number of applications of EMA Category B antibiotics initially increased with the number of patients treated, then remained stable, while the use of Category D drugs increased over time. Most Category B antibiotics were used for diseases of crias and diseases of the digestive tract, primarily dental disease. The use of EMA Category B antibiotics cannot be completely avoided based on the types of cases treated. However, antibiotic stewardship guidelines should be followed wherever possible.

Severe anaemia secondary to a perforated gastric ulcer in a male alpaca.

BACKGROUND: Anaemia is a common condition in alpacas and attributable to a variety of causes. Severe anaemia with a packed cell volume (PCV) less than 10% is frequently diagnosed, usually due to blood loss resulting from haemonchosis. Many South American camelids (SACs) also suffer from gastric ulcers, which are often associated with anaemia in other species. However, in alpacas and llamas, gastric ulcers usually do not lead to anaemia due to blood loss according to the current literature. There are no detailed clinical and laboratory data on this condition in the scientific literature so far. CASE PRESENTATION: We report on the case of a nine-year-old male alpaca that was presented to the clinic with suspected forestomach acidosis. The animal showed clinical signs of colic, hypothermia, tachypnea, tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and died shortly after admission to the clinic. Laboratory diagnosis revealed a markedly decreased haematocrit (0.13 l/l), leucopaenia with band neutrophils, azotaemia, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphataemia and vitamin D deficiency. Post-mortem examination revealed multiple ulcers in the first and third compartment with perforation of one ulcer in the first compartment, resulting in intraluminal blood loss and purulent peritonitis. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first detailed description of clinical and laboratory data of severe anaemia due to a perforated gastric ulcer in a SAC. Although the current literature suggests that severe blood loss due to gastric ulcers does not occur in SACs, this condition should be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in anaemic animals. Clinical indicators can be colic and pale mucous membranes.

Genome-wide scan for runs of homozygosity in South American Camelids.

BACKGROUND: Alpaca (Vicugna pacos), llama (Lama glama), vicugna (Vicugna vicugna) and guanaco (Lama guanicoe), are the camelid species distributed over the Andean high-altitude grasslands, the Altiplano, and the Patagonian arid steppes. Despite the wide interest on these animals, most of the loci under selection are still unknown. Using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data we investigated the occurrence and the distribution of Runs Of Homozygosity (ROHs) across the South American Camelids (SACs) genome to identify the genetic relationship between the four species and the potential signatures of selection. RESULTS: A total of 37 WGS samples covering the four species was included in the final analysis. The multi-dimensional scaling approach showed a clear separation between the four species; however, admixture analysis suggested a strong genetic introgression from vicugna and llama to alpaca. Conversely, very low genetic admixture of the guanaco with the other SACs was found. The four species did not show significant differences in the number, length of ROHs (100-500 kb) and genomic inbreeding values. Longer ROHs (> 500 kb) were found almost exclusively in alpaca. Seven overlapping ROHs were shared by alpacas, encompassing nine loci (FGF5, LOC107034918, PRDM8, ANTXR2, LOC102534792, BSN, LOC116284892, DAG1 and RIC8B) while nine overlapping ROHs were found in llama with twenty-five loci annotated (ERC2, FZD9, BAZ1B, BCL7B, LOC116284208, TBL2, MLXIPL, PHF20, TRNAD-AUC, LOC116284365, RBM39, ARFGEF2, DCAF5, EXD2, HSPB11, LRRC42, LDLRAD1, TMEM59, LOC107033213, TCEANC2, LOC102545169, LOC116278408, SMIM15, NDUFAF2 and RCOR1). Four overlapping ROHs, with three annotated loci (DLG1, KAT6B and PDE4D) and three overlapping ROHs, with seven annotated genes (ATP6V1E1, BCL2L13, LOC116276952, BID, KAT6B, LOC116282667 and LOC107034552), were detected for vicugna and guanaco, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The signatures of selection revealed genomic areas potentially selected for production traits as well as for natural adaptation to harsh environment. Alpaca and llama hint a selection driven by environment as well as by farming purpose while vicugna and guanaco showed selection signals for adaptation to harsh environment. Interesting, signatures of selection on KAT6B gene were identified for both vicugna and guanaco, suggesting a positive effect on wild populations fitness. Such information may be of interest to further ecological and animal production studies.

Clostridioides difficile in South American Camelids in Germany: First Insights into Molecular and Genetic Characteristics and Antimicrobial Resistance.

Little is known about zoonotic pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance in South American camelids (SAC) in Germany including Clostridioides (C.) difficile. The aim of this study was to investigate prevalence, molecular characteristics and antimicrobial resistance of C. difficile in SAC. Composite SAC faecal samples were collected in 43 husbandries in Central Germany and cultured for C. difficile. Toxinotyping and ribotyping was done by PCR. Whole genome sequencing was performed with Illumina® Miseq™. The genomes were screened for antimicrobial resistance determinants. Genetic relatedness of the isolates was investigated using core genome multi locus sequence typing (cgMLST) and single nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done using the Etest® method. Eight C. difficile isolates were recovered from seven farms. The isolates belonged to different PCR ribotypes. All isolates were toxinogenic. cgMLST revealed a cluster containing isolates recovered from different farms. Seven isolates showed similar resistance gene patterns. Different phenotypic resistance patterns were found. Agreement between phenotypic and genotypic resistance was identified only in some cases. Consequently, SAC may act as a reservoir for C. difficile. Thus, SAC may pose a risk regarding zoonotic transmission of toxinogenic, potentially human-pathogenic and resistant C. difficile isolates.

A Literature Review of Selected Bacterial Diseases in Alpacas and Llamas-Epidemiology, Clinical Signs and Diagnostics.

The breeding of South American Camelids (SACs), particularly llamas and alpacas, is becoming increasingly popular in regions that are not their natural habitat, including Europe. These animals are considered to be relatively disease resistant. However, due to their growing popularity, special attention should be given to infections in llamas and alpacas. Knowledge of bacterial infections is very important to veterinarians and breeders. Many of these diseases also have zoonotic potential, so these animals must be considered as sources of potential zoonotic infections. Due to the limited information on many diseases occurring in llamas and alpacas, veterinarians often rely on data collected in other animal species, focusing on cattle, sheep and horses. This work aims to summarise the knowledge of diseases caused by Clostridium spp., Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Streptococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pasteurella multocida, Manheimia haemolytica and Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in llamas and alpacas, with particular attention to epidemiology, clinical signs and diagnostics.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli from South American Camelids in Central Germany.

South American camelids (SAC) are increasingly kept in Europe in close contact with humans and other livestock species and can potentially contribute to transmission chains of epizootic, zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) agents from and to livestock and humans. Consequently, SAC were included as livestock species in the new European Animal Health Law. However, the knowledge on bacteria exhibiting AMR in SAC is too scarce to draft appropriate monitoring and preventive programs. During a survey of SAC holdings in central Germany, 39 Escherichia coli strains were isolated from composite fecal samples by selecting for cephalosporin or fluoroquinolone resistance and were here subjected to whole-genome sequencing. The data were bioinformatically analyzed for strain phylogeny, detection of pathovars, AMR genes and plasmids. Most (33/39) strains belonged to phylogroups A and B1. Still, the isolates were highly diverse, as evidenced by 28 multi-locus sequence types. More than half of the isolates (23/39) were genotypically classified as multidrug resistant. Genes mediating resistance to trimethoprim/sulfonamides (22/39), aminoglycosides (20/39) and tetracyclines (18/39) were frequent. The most common extended-spectrum-ß-lactamase gene was blaCTX-M-1 (16/39). One strain was classified as enteropathogenic E. coli. The positive results indicate the need to include AMR bacteria in yet-to-be-established animal disease surveillance protocols for SAC.

Estimation of carbon footprint and sources of emissions of an extensive alpaca production system.

A cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment was conducted following international standards (ISO 14040, 2006) to estimate sources of greenhouse gas emissions of an extensive alpaca production system in the Peruvian Andes with a focus on carbon footprint. The assessment encompasses all supply chain processes involved with the production of alpaca fiber and meat. Direct (i.e., enteric fermentation, manure, and manure management) and indirect emissions (i.e., electricity, fuel, and fertilizer) of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane were estimated according to the (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2006. IPCC 2006 for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Volume 2, Chapter 3. Mobile Combustion. Volume 4, Chapter 10. Emissions from livestock and manure management. Chapter 11. N2O emissions from managed soils and CO2 emissions derived from the application of lime and urea. https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html ). Carbon footprint was calculated based on a mass, economic, and biophysical allocation. The functional unit of the economic and mass allocations was 1 kg of LW as the main product and 1 kg of white or colored fiber as co-products. The functional unit of the biophysical allocation was 1 kg of live weight and 1 kg of fiber. The largest source of greenhouse gas emissions came from enteric fermentation (67%), followed by direct and indirect nitrous oxide emissions (29%). The estimated carbon footprint of the extensive alpaca production system, considering a 20% offtake rate, was 24.0 and 29.5 kg of carbon dioxide equivalents per kg of live weight for the economic and mass allocations, respectively, while for the biophysical allocation was 22.6 and 53.0 kg of carbon dioxide equivalents per kg of alpaca live weight and alpaca fiber, respectively. The carbon footprint per area was 88.6 kg carbon dioxide equivalents per ha.

Gastric Ulcers in Alpacas- Clinical, Laboratory, and Pathological Findings.

Gastric ulcers are a common finding in post-mortem examinations of South American camelids (SAC), but diagnosis in living animals is often difficult. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the incidence of gastric ulcers in alpacas, common concomitant diseases, and clinical as well as laboratory findings to facilitate diagnosis for veterinarians. For this purpose, a total of 187 necropsy reports of alpacas were evaluated, including clinical and laboratory findings on the living animal. A total of 23.5% of the animals (n = 44) were found to have gastric ulcers, nine were perforated. Compartment 3 was most frequently affected by gastric ulcers. No sex predilection could be detected, but animals 1 year of age and older were more frequently affected by gastric ulcers than animals under 1 year of age. Alpacas with gastric ulcers were presented to the clinic due to different non-specific symptoms. In alpacas with gastric ulcers, significantly more organs or organ systems besides the stomach revealed clinical findings than in animals without gastric ulcers. Of the 44 animals with gastric ulcers, a total of 21 alpacas (47.7%) had a poor nutritional status, but cachexia was not significantly more frequent in animals with gastric ulcers than in other dissected animals without ulcers. Hematologic investigations revealed a significantly lower white blood count and significantly lower segmented neutrophils than in deceased animals without ulcers. Compared to animals discharged after treatment, alpacas that died with gastric ulcers had significantly higher levels of band neutrophils and fewer eosinophils and basophils. Occult blood in feces was found in three of 12 animals with gastric ulcers examined for occult blood. In summary, gastric ulcers are a common problem in SAC, which is difficult to diagnose clinically or by laboratory investigations. As these are often chronic processes involving other organ systems, regular monitoring of the animals' nutritional status and early detection of disease symptoms may help to prevent gastric ulcers.