Chlorin e6-Conjugated Mesoporous Titania Nanorods as Potential Nanoplatform for Photo-Chemotherapy.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has developed as an efficient strategy for cancer treatment. PDT involves the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by light irradiation after activating a photosensitizer (PS) in the presence of O2. PS-coupled nanomaterials offer additional advantages, as they can merge the effects of PDT with conventional enabling-combined photo-chemotherapeutics effects. In this work, mesoporous titania nanorods were surface-immobilized with Chlorin e6 (Ce6) conjugated through 3-(aminopropyl)-trimethoxysilane as a coupling agent. The mesoporous nanorods act as nano vehicles for doxorubicin delivery, and the Ce6 provides a visible light-responsive production of ROS to induce PDT. The nanomaterials were characterized by XRD, DRS, FTIR, TGA, N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms at 77 K, and TEM. The obtained materials were tested for their singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radical generation capacity using fluorescence assays. In vitro cell viability experiments with HeLa cells showed that the prepared materials are not cytotoxic in the dark, and that they exhibit photodynamic activity when irradiated with LED light (150 W m-2). Drug-loading experiments with doxorubicin (DOX) as a model chemotherapeutic drug showed that the nanostructures efficiently encapsulated DOX. The DOX-nanomaterial formulations show chemo-cytotoxic effects on Hela cells. Combined photo-chemotoxicity experiments show enhanced effects on HeLa cell viability, indicating that the conjugated nanorods are promising for use in combined therapy driven by LED light irradiation.

Chlorin-based photosensitizer under blue or red-light irradiation against multi-species biofilms related to periodontitis.

In our previous study, Chlorin-e6 (Ce6) demonstrated a significant reduction of microorganisms' viability against single-species biofilm related to periodontitis once irradiated by red light (660 nm). Also, higher bacteria elimination was observed under blue light (450 nm) irradiation. However, the use of blue light irradiation of Ce6 for antimicrobial administration is poorly explored. This study evaluated the effect of chlorin-e6-mediated antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) using different wavelengths (450 or 660 nm) against multi-species biofilms related to periodontitis. Streptococcus oralis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans composed the mature biofilm developed under proper conditions for five days. aPDT was performed using different concentrations of Ce6 (100 and 200 µM), wavelengths (450 or 660 nm), and comparisons were made after qPCR assay and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) analysis. The greatest bacterial elimination was observed in the groups where Ce6 was used with blue light, for S. orallis (2.05 Log10 GeQ mL-1, p < 0.0001) and P. gingivalis (1.4 Log10 GeQ mL-1, p < 0.0001), aPDT with red light showed significant bacteria reduction only for S. orallis. aPDT with blue light demonstrated statistically higher elimination in comparison with aPDT with red light. The aPDT did not show a statistically significant effect when tested against A. actinomycetemcomitans and F. nucleatum (p=0.776 and 0.988, respectively). The aPDT using blue light showed a promising higher photobiological effect, encouraging researchers to consider it in the irradiation of Ce6 for further investigations.

Ras-transfected human mammary tumour cells are resistant to photodynamic therapy by mechanisms related to cell adhesion.

AIMS: Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment modality for several cancers involving the administration of a tumour-localising photosensitiser (PS) and its subsequent activation by light, resulting in tumour damage. Ras oncogenes have been strongly associated with chemo- and radio-resistance. Based on the described roles of adhesion and cell morphology on drug resistance, we studied if the differences in shape, cell-extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesion induced by Ras transfection, play a role in the resistance to PDT. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We employed the human normal breast HB4a cells transfected with H-RAS and a panel of five PSs. KEY FINDINGS: We found that resistance to PDT of the HB4a-Ras cells employing all the PSs, increased between 1.3 and 2.5-fold as compared to the parental cells. There was no correlation between resistance and intracellular PS levels or PS intracellular localisation. Even when Ras-transfected cells present lower adherence to the ECM proteins, this does not make them more sensitive to PDT or chemotherapy. On the contrary, a marked gain of resistance to PDT was observed in floating cells as compared to adhesive cells, accounting for the higher ability conferred by Ras to survive in conditions of decreased cell-extracellular matrix interactions. HB4a-Ras cells displayed disorganisation of actin fibres, mislocalised E-cadherin and vinculin and lower expression of E-cadherin and ß1-integrin as compared to HB4a cells. SIGNIFICANCE: Knowledge of the mechanisms of resistance to photodamage in Ras-overexpressing cells may lead to the optimization of the combination of PDT with other treatments.

Efficacy of the combination of P5 peptide and photodynamic therapy mediated by bixin and chlorin-e6 against Cutibacterium acnes biofilm.

In this study, the action of antimicrobial peptide (AMP) P5 and antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) mediated by bixin and chlorin-e6 (Ce6) on Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) in planktonic phase and biofilm were evaluated both as monotherapies and combined therapies. Microbial viability after treatments were quantified by colony-forming units per milliliter of the sample (CFU/mL) and have demonstrated that all treatments employed exerted bactericidal activity, reducing the microbial load by more than 3 log10 CFU/mL, also demonstrating for the first time in the literature the antimicrobial photodynamic effect of bixin that occurs mostly through type I mechanism which was proved by the quantification of superoxide anion production. Bacterial biofilm was completely eliminated only after its exposure to aPDT mediated by this PS, however, Ce6 proved to be a more efficient PS, considering that most of the photodynamic effect of bixin- aPDT was exerted by excitation of the endogenous C porphyrins of C. acnes with blue light. The combination of P5 with Ce6-aPDT showed a synergistic effect on the bacterial biofilm with a reduction in microbial load by more than 10 log10 CFU/mL, in which the ability of P5 to permeabilize the polymeric extracellular matrix of the biofilm explains the obtained results, with greater internalization of the PS as shown by the Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy. One-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) with Tukey's post-test and two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's post-test were used to compare the values of continuous variables between the control group and the treatment groups.

Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy against metronidazole-resistant dental plaque bactéria.

The antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has stood out as an alternative and promising method of disinfection and has been exploited for the treatment of oral bacteria. In this study, we evaluate in vitro the action of aPDT, mediated by methylene blue, chlorin-e6, and curcumin against clinical subgingival plaques that were resistant to metronidazole. The sensitivity profile of the samples to metronidazole was analyzed by the agar dilution method. Cell viability in the planktonic and biofilm phase was assessed by CFU / mL. The composition of the biofilm was evaluated by the checkboard DNA-DNA Hibrydization technique. Photosensitizers internalization was qualitatively assessed by confocal fluorescence microscopy (CLSM). The aPDT mediated by the three photosensitizers tested was able to reduce the totality of the planktonic microbial load and partially reduce the biofilm samples. The analysis performed by CLSM showed that the photosensitizers used in the application of aPDT were able to permeate the interior of the biofilm. The aPDT has been shown to be useful in a supportive and effective approach to the treatment of periodontal disease.

Biofilm formation by Candida albicans is inhibited by photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), using chlorin e6: increase in both ROS production and membrane permeability.

Candida albicans is an opportunistic fungal producing both superficial and systemic infections in immunocompromised patients. Furthermore, it has been described an increase in the frequency of infections which have become refractory to standard antifungal therapy. Photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT) is a potential antimicrobial therapy that combines visible light and a nontoxic dye, known as a photosensitizer, producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can kill the treated cells. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of PACT, using chlorin e6, as a photosensitizer on C. albicans. In this work, we studied the effect of PACT on both cell growth and biofilm formation by C. albicans. In addition, both ROS production and cell permeability were determined after PACT. PACT inhibited both growth and biofilm formation by C. albicans. We have also observed that PACT increased both ROS production (six times) and cell membrane permeability (five times) in C. albicans. PACT decreased both cell growth and biofilm development. The effect of PACT using chlorin e6 on C. albicans could be associated with an increase in ROS production, which could increase cell permeability, producing permanent damage to the cell membranes, leading to the cell death.

Susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis and Propionibacterium acnes to antimicrobial photodynamic therapy.

Bacterial resistance to available antibiotics nowadays is a global threat leading researchers around the world to study new treatment modalities for infections. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has been considered an effective and promising therapeutic alternative in this scenario. Briefly, this therapy is based on the activation of a non-toxic photosensitizing agent, known as photosensitizer (PS), by light at a specific wavelength generating cytotoxic singlet oxygen and free radicals. Virtually all studies related to aPDT involve a huge screening to identify ideal PS concentration and light dose combinations, a laborious and time-consuming process that is hardly disclosed in the literature. Herein, we describe an antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) study against Enterococcus faecalis and Propionibacterium acnes employing methylene blue, chlorin-e6 or curcumin as PS. Similarities and discrepancies between the two bacterial species were pointed out in an attempt to speed up and facilitate futures studies against those clinical relevant strains. Susceptibility tests were performed by the broth microdilution method. Our results demonstrate that aPDT mediated by the three above-mentioned PS was effective in eliminating both gram-positive bacteria, although P. acnes showed remarkably higher susceptibility to aPDT when compared to E. faecalis. PS uptake assays revealed that P. acnes is 80 times more efficient than E. faecalis in internalizing all three PS molecules. Our results evidence that the cell wall structure is not a limiting feature when predicting bacterial susceptibility to aPDT treatment.

Synthesis and characterization of gold nanostructured Chorin e6 for Photodynamic Therapy.

Photodynamic therapy is an alternative treatment for cancer based on cellular uptake of a photosensitizer, illuminated with an appropriate wavelength in the presence of oxygen. A cascade of reactions generates reactive oxygen species leading to cell death. Using carbodiimide chemistry, chlorin e6 (Ce6) was covalently bonded to thiourea, and (via the sulphur end group) to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), forming the Ce6-AuNP complex. Ce6 absorbs in the range 650-680nm, where the coefficient of biological tissue absorption is low (part of the therapeutic window), which is ideal for biological application. Transmission Electron Microscopy, UV-vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Zeta potential measurements were completed to characterize the Ce6-AuNP complex. The bare AuNPs have an average diameter of 18±4nm. A line of human breast carcinoma cells (MDA-MB-468) was used to determine whether Ce6 functionalization to AuNPs potentiate its activity. Trypan blue assays were used to assess cell viability. In the absence of light, Ce6 either alone or bounded to AuNPs was not cytotoxic. When irradiated at 660nm, the cytotoxicity of Ce6-AuNP was higher than Ce6 alone for MDA-MB-468 cells using 4h incubation. AuNPs without Ce6 showed no cytotoxic.

Chlorin E6 phototoxicity in L. major and L. braziliensis promastigotes-In vitro study.

BACKGROUND: Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a zoonosis caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. Conventional treatments are long and aggressive, and they trigger a diversity of side effects. Photodynamic Therapy was originally proposed as a treatment for cancer, and it now appears to be a promising therapy for local treatment with fewer side effects of infectious diseases. METHODS: This study aimed to evaluate Chlorin e6 internalization by Leishmania major and Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes and its viability and effects on mitochondrial activity. Control groups were kept in the dark, while PDT groups received fluence of 10J/cm(2) (660nm). Chlorin internalization was evaluated using confocal microscopy after one hour of incubation for both species. RESULTS: The mitochondrial activity was evaluated by MTT assay, and viability was measured by the Trypan blue exclusion test. Giemsa staining was used to observe morphological changes. PS was internalized in both species and mitochondrial activity changed in all groups. However, the obtained MTT and Trypan results indicated that despite the change in mitochondrial activity in the dark groups, their viability was not affected, whereas the PDT treated groups had significantly reduced viability. Morphology was drastically altered in PDT treated groups, while groups kept in the dark exhibited the standard morphology. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that Chlorin has great potential for being used in PDT as a treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis, although more studies are needed to determine in vivo application protocols.

Identificação e propriedades físico-químicas da clorofilina cúprica de sódio e da clorina cúprica e6 / Identification and physicochemical properties of sodium copper chloruphyllin and copper chlorin e6

A clorofilina cúprica de sódio (CuChl) é um corante semissintético derivado da clorofila. Quimicamente é constituído de diversas clorinas, em especial a clorina cúprica e4 (CuCe4), a clorina cúprica e6 (CuCe6), e possíveis clorinas e porfirinas não cúpricas em proporções variáveis. Além do seu uso como corante alimentar, são atribuídas atividades biológicas à CuChl, tais como, antimutagênica, anticarcinogênica e antioxidante. Em decorrência destes potenciais efeitos benéficos, sua comercialização sob a forma de suplementos é crescente. Todavia, curiosamente, informações sobre a absorção e biodisponibilidade da CuChl são escassas. Além disso, até o momento nenhum estudo avaliou o impacto da composição da CuChl em sua bioatividade e eficácia. Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo identificar e caracterizar quimicamente duas amostras de CuChl (Sigma® e Chr. Hansen®) e o padrão de CuCe6 (Frontier Scientific®). Para tanto, empregou-se técnicas cromatográficas e espectrofotométricas, determinou-se a lipofilicidade em modelos miméticos de membrana, cinética de degradação e avaliou-se a interação CuCe6/BSA. A análise elementar da CuChl resultou em teores de cobre total inferiores aos recomendados pela United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.). Os elementos (CHN) e a razão Cu/N não foram coerentes com os valores teóricos da molécula de CuChl. Apenas uma amostra de CuChl apresentou razão Soret/Q dentro dos valores preconizados pela U.S.P. A titulação base-ácido da CuCe6 revelou dois valores de pkas (10,62 e 6,41) que foram similares para as amostras de CuChl. A determinação de log P da CuCe6 mostrou que a hidrofobicidade é máxima em pH 3 (log P = 1,49±0,09) e sua hidrofilicidade ocorre em pHs > 7. Esse comportamento foi confirmado nos ensaios de incorporação em lipossomas em função do pH. A degradação térmica da CuChl (25 a 95 °C) avaliada por HPLC foi drástica a partir de 75 °C. A energia necessária para que ocorra a degradação da CuChl e CuCe6 é Ea = 16,1 e 9,3kcal/mol, respectivamente. A meia-vida a 35 °C é de 6 horas para a CuChl e 2 horas e meia para a CuCe6. A separação mais eficiente dos componentes da CuChl por HPLC foi conseguida utilizando coluna C30 e a identificação dos principais constituintes CuCe6, CuCe4 e a clorina cúprica p6 (CuCp6), ocorreu por HPLC/MSMS. No estudo da ligação entre CuCe6 e proteína BSA foram obtidos os valores de KD = 0,38 ± 0,07 µM, KA = 3,3 ± 0,28 x 106 M-1 e número de sítios de ligação ~1 (N = 0,75 ± 0,09), indicativo de alta afinidade entre a clorina e a proteína. Assim, o comportamento químico dos principais componentes da CuChl e sua interação com os componentes do soro tornaram inviáveis a identificação e quantificação destas moléculas em ensaios in vivo. Os resultados aqui apresentados servem de subsídio para o desenvolvimento de outras pesquisas que visem o estudo específico da associação e dissociação da CuChl em material biológico

Sodium copper chlorophyllin (CuChl) is a semisynthetic derivative of chlorophyll dye. It is composed chemically by several chlorins, especially copper chlorin e4 (CuCe4), copper chlorin e6 (CuCe6), and possible others no copper porphyrins and chlorins in different proportions. In addition to its use as a food coloring, CuChl may have interesting biological effects as antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic and antioxidant. Because of these potential benefits, its use as a dietary supplement is increasing. However, information on the absorption and bioavailability of CuChl is scarce. Furthermore, no studies have evaluated the impact of CuChl composition in its bioactivity and efficacy. Thus, the present study aimed to identify and chemically characterize two samples of CuChl (Sigma® and Hansen®) and the standard of CuCe6 (Frontier Scientific®). Chromatographic and spectrometric techniques as well as mimetics models membrane were used. The CuCe6/BSA interaction was also evaluated. The elemental analysis of CuChl showed that the total copper content of it was smaller that the one recommended by United States Pharmacopeia (USP). The elements (CHN) and the ratio Cu / N were not consistent with the theoretical values of the molecule CuChl. Only one CuChl sample showed Soret / Q ratio within the range recommended by USP. The acid-base titration of CuCe6 revealed two pKas values (10.62 and 6.41), which were similar for CuChl samples. The log P determination of CuCe6 showed that its hydrophobicity is maximal at pH 3 (log P = 1.49 ± 0.09) and its hydrophilicity occurs at pH> 7. These results were confirmed using the incorporation into liposomes assay in function of pH. Using HPLC, it was observed that thermal degradation of CuChl (25 to 95 °C) hardly occurred from 75 °C. The energy necessary for CuChl and CuCe6 degradation is Ea = 16.1 and 9.3 kcal/mol, respectively. The half-life at 35°C for CuChl and CuCe6 is 6 hours and 2 ½ hours, respectively. A more efficient separation of the CuChl components by HPLC was achieved using a C30 column while its major constituents CuCe6, CuCe4 and copper chlorin p6 (CuCp6) were identified by HPLC / MS-MS. In binding analysis of CuCe6 and BSA, it was observed KD = 0.38 ± 0.07 mM, KA = 3.3 ± 0.28 x 106 M-1, and number of binding sites ~ 1 (N = 0.75 ± .09), indicating high affinity between BSA and chlorine. Thus, due to the chemical characteristics of the main components of CuChl and their interaction with serum components the identification and quantification of these molecules in vivo is unviable. Future studies should investigate the association and dissociation of CuChl in biological samples