Genetically modified maize hybrids and delayed sowing reduced drought effects across a rainfall gradient in temperate Argentina.

Before the introduction of genetically modified insect-tolerant maize (Zea mays L.) in 1997, most of the production of this staple in Argentina was concentrated in humid and sub-humid temperate regions. Early spring sowings minimized the risk of water deficit around flowering and yield reduction due to pests. Use of genetically modified maize allowed optimization of sowing dates to synchronize critical periods for kernel set determination with the times of the year when water deficits are less likely, reducing large interannual variations in grain yield. This change in sowing date did not start until 2009, after the occurrence of two successive dry phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon. The area of land cropped to maize in Argentina has expanded dramatically since then, particularly beyond the humid areas. Currently, maize is sown in an almost 50%/50% distribution between early and late sowings, including double cropping. Changes in agronomic practices such as sowing date and production area can lead to changes in the timing and intensity of water deficits along the maize growth cycle. This review provides an overview of new patterns of water deficit across humid, sub-humid, and semi-arid mid-latitude environments of Argentina, and their effects on grain yield and yield components.

The genetic architecture of maize (Zea mays L.) kernel weight determination.

Individual kernel weight is an important trait for maize yield determination. We have identified genomic regions controlling this trait by using the B73xMo17 population; however, the effect of genetic background on control of this complex trait and its physiological components is not yet known. The objective of this study was to understand how genetic background affected our previous results. Two nested stable recombinant inbred line populations (N209xMo17 and R18xMo17) were designed for this purpose. A total of 408 recombinant inbred lines were genotyped and phenotyped at two environments for kernel weight and five other traits related to kernel growth and development. All traits showed very high and significant (P < 0.001) phenotypic variability and medium-to-high heritability (0.60-0.90). When N209xMo17 and R18xMo17 were analyzed separately, a total of 23 environmentally stable quantitative trait loci (QTL) and five epistatic interactions were detected for N209xMo17. For R18xMo17, 59 environmentally stable QTL and 17 epistatic interactions were detected. A joint analysis detected 14 stable QTL regardless of the genetic background. Between 57 and 83% of detected QTL were population specific, denoting medium-to-high genetic background effects. This percentage was dependent on the trait. A meta-analysis including our previous B73xMo17 results identified five relevant genomic regions deserving further characterization. In summary, our grain filling traits were dominated by small additive QTL with several epistatic and few environmental interactions and medium-to-high genetic background effects. This study demonstrates that the number of detected QTL and additive effects for different physiologically related grain filling traits need to be understood relative to the specific germplasm.

Independent genetic control of maize (Zea mays L.) kernel weight determination and its phenotypic plasticity.

Maize kernel weight (KW) is associated with the duration of the grain-filling period (GFD) and the rate of kernel biomass accumulation (KGR). It is also related to the dynamics of water and hence is physiologically linked to the maximum kernel water content (MWC), kernel desiccation rate (KDR), and moisture concentration at physiological maturity (MCPM). This work proposed that principles of phenotypic plasticity can help to consolidated the understanding of the environmental modulation and genetic control of these traits. For that purpose, a maize population of 245 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) was grown under different environmental conditions. Trait plasticity was calculated as the ratio of the variance of each RIL to the overall phenotypic variance of the population of RILs. This work found a hierarchy of plasticities: KDR ≈ GFD > MCPM > KGR > KW > MWC. There was no phenotypic and genetic correlation between traits per se and trait plasticities. MWC, the trait with the lowest plasticity, was the exception because common quantitative trait loci were found for the trait and its plasticity. Independent genetic control of a trait per se and genetic control of its plasticity is a condition for the independent evolution of traits and their plasticities. This allows breeders potentially to select for high or low plasticity in combination with high or low values of economically relevant traits.

Agressividade diferencial de espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum em interação com o fungicida tebuconazole na redução do rendimento de trigo / Differential aggressiveness of species of the Fusarium graminearum complex in interaction with tebuconazole fungicide on the reduction of wheat grain yield

No Brasil, a giberela em trigo é causada por espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum, especialmente F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) e F. meridionale (Fmer), as quais variam quanto ao potencial toxigênico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a relação entre características fenotípicas e agressividade dessas duas espécies associadas ao uso do fungicida tebuconazole, da classe dos triazóis, com a redução de rendimento do trigo. Em dez isolados Fgss e nove Fmer, foram avaliados: esporulação total, taxa de germinação e sensibilidade ao fungicida tebuconazole. A inoculação, para cada isolado, foi feita por aspersão em espigas e as variáveis severidade da doença, incidência de grãos giberelados e o peso de grãos foram avaliados. O efeito de tebuconazole na redução da doença foi avaliado em ação protetora, seguida de inoculação na espigueta central de plantas da cultivar 'BRS Guamirim', com os seguintes tipos de inóculo: somente Fgss, somente Fmer ou a mistura de ambos (1:1). Isolados Fgss apresentaram maior esporulação total, maior taxa de germinação e foram menos sensíveis ao tebuconazole em comparação a Fmer. Grãos giberelados por isolados Fmer apresentaram 50% maior peso do que aqueles provenientes de inoculações com Fgss. O tebuconazole apresentou efeito fungistático e os grãos de espigas tratadas com o fungicida apresentaram peso 25% superior aos não tratados. Sugere-se que diferenças no potencial de dano aos grãos pelas duas espécies, assim como o efeito fungistático de triazóis, podem ajudar a explicar a co-ocorrência de diferentes micotoxinas, o que ainda necessita ser confirmado com dados de campo.

Fusarium head blight of wheat in Brazil is caused mainly by two species of the Fusarium graminearum species complex: F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) and F. meridionale (Fmer), which vary in relation to toxigenic potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of phenotypic traits and aggressiveness of these two species, associated with the tebuconazole fungicide, of the triazole group, on the reduction of wheat yield. Ten Fgss strains and Fmer strains were evaluated with regards to: total sporulation, germination rate and tebuconazole sensitivity. The strains were spray-inoculated onto BRS Guamirim cv. 'plants' at full flowering and disease severity, Fusarium-damaged kernels, and kernel weight were evaluated. The effect of tebuconazole in disease control was evaluated through spraying the fungicide and then inoculating the central-floret of the wheat head with the following inoculum treatments: a mixture of all Fgss strains, a mixture of all Fmer strains or a mixture of all isolates of both species (1:1). Strains of Fgss showed higher total sporulation and germination rates and were less sensitivity to tebuconazole. The weight of Fusarium-damaged kernels from inoculations with Fmer strains was 50% higher than those inoculated with Fgss. A fungistatic effect on the disease was found for tebuconazole application and harvested kernels showed 25% higher grain weight than the untreated kernels. It is suggested that the distinct yield loss potential by these two species, in association with the fungistatic effect of triazoles could explain the co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the harvested kernels, which needs to be proven with field data.

Agressividade diferencial de espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum em interação com o fungicida tebuconazole na redução do rendimento de trigo

Fusarium head blight of wheat in Brazil is caused mainly by two species of the Fusarium graminearum species complex: F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) and F. meridionale (Fmer), which vary in relation to toxigenic potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of phenotypic traits and aggressiveness of these two species, associated with the tebuconazole fungicide, of the triazole group, on the reduction of wheat yield. Ten Fgss strains and Fmer strains were evaluated with regards to: total sporulation, germination rate and tebuconazole sensitivity. The strains were spray-inoculated onto BRS Guamirim cv. 'plants' at full flowering and disease severity, Fusarium-damaged kernels, and kernel weight were evaluated. The effect of tebuconazole in disease control was evaluated through spraying the fungicide and then inoculating the central-floret of the wheat head with the following inoculum treatments: a mixture of all Fgss strains, a mixture of all Fmer strains or a mixture of all isolates of both species (1:1). Strains of Fgss showed higher total sporulation and germination rates and were less sensitivity to tebuconazole. The weight of Fusarium-damaged kernels from inoculations with Fmer strains was 50% higher than those inoculated with Fgss. A fungistatic effect on the disease was found for tebuconazole application and harvested kernels showed 25% higher grain weight than the untreated kernels. It is suggested that the distinct yield loss potential by these two species, in association with the fungistatic effect of triazoles could explain the co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the harvested kernels, which needs to be proven with field data.

No Brasil, a giberela em trigo é causada por espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum, especialmente F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) e F. meridionale (Fmer), as quais variam quanto ao potencial toxigênico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a relação entre características fenotípicas e agressividade dessas duas espécies associadas ao uso do fungicida tebuconazole, da classe dos triazóis, com a redução de rendimento do trigo. Em dez isolados Fgss e nove Fmer, foram avaliados: esporulação total, taxa de germinação e sensibilidade ao fungicida tebuconazole. A inoculação, para cada isolado, foi feita por aspersão em espigas e as variáveis severidade da doença, incidência de grãos giberelados e o peso de grãos foram avaliados. O efeito de tebuconazole na redução da doença foi avaliado em ação protetora, seguida de inoculação na espigueta central de plantas da cultivar 'BRS Guamirim', com os seguintes tipos de inóculo: somente Fgss, somente Fmer ou a mistura de ambos (1:1). Isolados Fgss apresentaram maior esporulação total, maior taxa de germinação e foram menos sensíveis ao tebuconazole em comparação a Fmer. Grãos giberelados por isolados Fmer apresentaram 50% maior peso do que aqueles provenientes de inoculações com Fgss. O tebuconazole apresentou efeito fungistático e os grãos de espigas tratadas com o fungicida apresentaram peso 25% superior aos não tratados. Sugere-se que diferenças no potencial de dano aos grãos pelas duas espécies, assim como o efeito fungistático de triazóis, podem ajudar a explicar a co-ocorrência de diferentes micotoxinas, o que ainda necessita ser confirmado com dados de campo.

Agressividade diferencial de espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum em interação com o fungicida tebuconazole na redução do rendimento de trigo

Fusarium head blight of wheat in Brazil is caused mainly by two species of the Fusarium graminearum species complex: F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) and F. meridionale (Fmer), which vary in relation to toxigenic potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of phenotypic traits and aggressiveness of these two species, associated with the tebuconazole fungicide, of the triazole group, on the reduction of wheat yield. Ten Fgss strains and Fmer strains were evaluated with regards to: total sporulation, germination rate and tebuconazole sensitivity. The strains were spray-inoculated onto BRS Guamirim cv. 'plants' at full flowering and disease severity, Fusarium-damaged kernels, and kernel weight were evaluated. The effect of tebuconazole in disease control was evaluated through spraying the fungicide and then inoculating the central-floret of the wheat head with the following inoculum treatments: a mixture of all Fgss strains, a mixture of all Fmer strains or a mixture of all isolates of both species (1:1). Strains of Fgss showed higher total sporulation and germination rates and were less sensitivity to tebuconazole. The weight of Fusarium-damaged kernels from inoculations with Fmer strains was 50% higher than those inoculated with Fgss. A fungistatic effect on the disease was found for tebuconazole application and harvested kernels showed 25% higher grain weight than the untreated kernels. It is suggested that the distinct yield loss potential by these two species, in association with the fungistatic effect of triazoles could explain the co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the harvested kernels, which needs to be proven with field data.

No Brasil, a giberela em trigo é causada por espécies do complexo Fusarium graminearum, especialmente F. graminearum sensu stricto (Fgss) e F. meridionale (Fmer), as quais variam quanto ao potencial toxigênico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a relação entre características fenotípicas e agressividade dessas duas espécies associadas ao uso do fungicida tebuconazole, da classe dos triazóis, com a redução de rendimento do trigo. Em dez isolados Fgss e nove Fmer, foram avaliados: esporulação total, taxa de germinação e sensibilidade ao fungicida tebuconazole. A inoculação, para cada isolado, foi feita por aspersão em espigas e as variáveis severidade da doença, incidência de grãos giberelados e o peso de grãos foram avaliados. O efeito de tebuconazole na redução da doença foi avaliado em ação protetora, seguida de inoculação na espigueta central de plantas da cultivar 'BRS Guamirim', com os seguintes tipos de inóculo: somente Fgss, somente Fmer ou a mistura de ambos (1:1). Isolados Fgss apresentaram maior esporulação total, maior taxa de germinação e foram menos sensíveis ao tebuconazole em comparação a Fmer. Grãos giberelados por isolados Fmer apresentaram 50% maior peso do que aqueles provenientes de inoculações com Fgss. O tebuconazole apresentou efeito fungistático e os grãos de espigas tratadas com o fungicida apresentaram peso 25% superior aos não tratados. Sugere-se que diferenças no potencial de dano aos grãos pelas duas espécies, assim como o efeito fungistático de triazóis, podem ajudar a explicar a co-ocorrência de diferentes micotoxinas, o que ainda necessita ser confirmado com dados de campo.

Variação e associação de características ligadas a formação do grão de genótipos de trigo

Yield of wheat seed is a function of the number of grains produced per unit area and grain weight. Grain weight is affected by the rate and duration of the kernel growth. The objective of this experiment was to measure the rate and duration of grain filling of seven brazilian wheat genotypes in order to evaluate genotypic variation for these characters and to examine the relationship between rate and duration of grain filling, and other agronomic parameters. Significant genotypic variation for rate and duration of seed filling was observed. Rate of seed filling varied from 0.077 to 0.089 mg/seed/accumulated growing degree days, while duration of grain filling varied between 27 to 31 days. Rate, but not duration of grain filling, was correlated with grain weight. Kernel weight may be an appropriate selection criteria to be used by breeders to select early maturing wheat genotypes for higer grain filling rate.

O rendimento de trigo (Triticum aestivum L.) é estabelecido pelo número de grãos produzidos por unidade de área e pelo peso do grão. Este é determinado pela taxa e duração do desenvolvimento do grão. A taxa e a duração do enchimento do grão foram determinados em sete genótipos de trigos brasileiros, com o objetivo de avaliar a variação genotípica para estes caracteres e a relação dos mesmos com parâmetros agronômicos. Variações genotípicas significativas foram observadas, tanto para a taxa como para a duração de enchimento da grão. A taxa e a duração de enchimento do grão variaram de 0,077 a 0,089 mg/sem/gráus dias acumulados e de 27 a 31 dias, respectivamente. A taxa e não a duração de enchimento estava associada ao peso do grão. A seleção de genótipos com maior peso de grão pode levar à obtenção de cultivares de trigo precoces, com maior taxa de enchimento de grãos e adequadas a um sistema de duas culturas anuais.

Variação e associação de características ligadas a formação do grão de genótipos de trigo

Yield of wheat seed is a function of the number of grains produced per unit area and grain weight. Grain weight is affected by the rate and duration of the kernel growth. The objective of this experiment was to measure the rate and duration of grain filling of seven brazilian wheat genotypes in order to evaluate genotypic variation for these characters and to examine the relationship between rate and duration of grain filling, and other agronomic parameters. Significant genotypic variation for rate and duration of seed filling was observed. Rate of seed filling varied from 0.077 to 0.089 mg/seed/accumulated growing degree days, while duration of grain filling varied between 27 to 31 days. Rate, but not duration of grain filling, was correlated with grain weight. Kernel weight may be an appropriate selection criteria to be used by breeders to select early maturing wheat genotypes for higer grain filling rate.

O rendimento de trigo (Triticum aestivum L.) é estabelecido pelo número de grãos produzidos por unidade de área e pelo peso do grão. Este é determinado pela taxa e duração do desenvolvimento do grão. A taxa e a duração do enchimento do grão foram determinados em sete genótipos de trigos brasileiros, com o objetivo de avaliar a variação genotípica para estes caracteres e a relação dos mesmos com parâmetros agronômicos. Variações genotípicas significativas foram observadas, tanto para a taxa como para a duração de enchimento da grão. A taxa e a duração de enchimento do grão variaram de 0,077 a 0,089 mg/sem/gráus dias acumulados e de 27 a 31 dias, respectivamente. A taxa e não a duração de enchimento estava associada ao peso do grão. A seleção de genótipos com maior peso de grão pode levar à obtenção de cultivares de trigo precoces, com maior taxa de enchimento de grãos e adequadas a um sistema de duas culturas anuais.

Rendimento de grãos e componentes do rendimento de cultivares de milho em duas épocas de semeadura

The experiment was carried out in Passo Fundo-RS, Brazil, in order to evaluate the interaction between cultivars and planting dates for corn yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted under irrigated, during the 1991/92 growing season. Two planting dates (September 13, 1991 and January 3, 1992) and nine com cultivars (C 805, C 901, P 3069, SR 100, AG 303, AG 513, XL 560, XL 605 and G 5555) were tested. Plants were harvested on March 4, 1992 and May 26, 1992 for the planting dates of September and January, respectively. There were differences in the grain yield and yield components among the cultivars for the two planting dates tested. In September, the sowing of the C 901 and C 805 cultivars showed the highest grain yield. In January, the cultivar C 901 showed the highest grain yield. The average grain yield varied from 9.69t ha-1, in the first planting date to 4.05t ha-1 in the second planting date. The average grain yield was reduced in 58.2%. from the first to the second planting date. The grain yield decreased more than 60% in XL 560, P 3069 and SR 100 cultivars as a result of the delay in the planting date. The sowing in September favoured more kernel weight and number of kernels per ear than the sowing in January.

Este experimento teve como objetivo verificar a existência de interação entre cultivares e épocas de semeadura para rendimento de grãos e componentes do rendimento em milho. O experimento, realizado em Passo Fundo, RS, foi conduzido sob condições de suplementação hídrica, durante o ano agrícola 1991/92. Os tratamentos constaram de duas épocas de semeadura (13 de setembro de 1991 e 03 de janeiro de 1992) e nove genótipos de milho (C 805, C 901, P 3069, SR 100, AG 303, AG 513, XL 560, XL 605 e G 5555), em quatro repetições. A colheita foi realizada nos dias 04 de março e 26 de maio de 1992, para as semeaduras de setembro e janeiro, respectivamente. Houve resposta diferencial dos genótipos à época de semeadura, para rendimento de grãos e componentes do rendimento. Na semeadura realizada em setembro, as cultivares C 901 e C 805 apresentaram maiores rendimentos de grãos. Na semeadura de janeiro, destacou-se a cultivar C 901. O rendimento médio de grãos foi de 9,69t ha-1, na primeira época de semeadura e de 4,05t ha-1 na semeadura em janeiro. A redução média do rendimento de grãos com o atraso da semeadura foi de 58,2%, atingindo valores acima de 60% para as cultivares XL 560, P 3069 e SR 100. A semeadura realizada em setembro propiciou maior peso de mil grãos e número de grãos por espiga em relação a semeadura em janeiro.

RENDIMENTO DE GRÃOS E COMPONENTES DO RENDIMENTO DE CULTIVARES DE MILHO EM DUAS ÉPOCAS DE SEMEADURA

The experiment was carried out in Passo Fundo-RS, Brazil, in order to evaluate the interaction between cultivars and planting dates for corn yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted under irrigated, during the 1991/92 growing season. Two planting dates (September 13, 1991 and January 3, 1992) and nine com cultivars (C 805, C 901, P 3069, SR 100, AG 303, AG 513, XL 560, XL 605 and G 5555) were tested. Plants were harvested on March 4, 1992 and May 26, 1992 for the planting dates of September and January, respectively. There were differences in the grain yield and yield components among the cultivars for the two planting dates tested. In September, the sowing of the C 901 and C 805 cultivars showed the highest grain yield. In January, the cultivar C 901 showed the highest grain yield. The average grain yield varied from 9.69t ha-1, in the first planting date to 4.05t ha-1 in the second planting date. The average grain yield was reduced in 58.2%. from the first to the second planting date. The grain yield decreased more than 60% in XL 560, P 3069 and SR 100 cultivars as a result of the delay in the planting date. The sowing in September favoured more kernel weight and number of kernels per ear than the sowing in January.

Este experimento teve como objetivo verificar a existência de interação entre cultivares e épocas de semeadura para rendimento de grãos e componentes do rendimento em milho. O experimento, realizado em Passo Fundo, RS, foi conduzido sob condições de suplementação hídrica, durante o ano agrícola 1991/92. Os tratamentos constaram de duas épocas de semeadura (13 de setembro de 1991 e 03 de janeiro de 1992) e nove genótipos de milho (C 805, C 901, P 3069, SR 100, AG 303, AG 513, XL 560, XL 605 e G 5555), em quatro repetições. A colheita foi realizada nos dias 04 de março e 26 de maio de 1992, para as semeaduras de setembro e janeiro, respectivamente. Houve resposta diferencial dos genótipos à época de semeadura, para rendimento de grãos e componentes do rendimento. Na semeadura realizada em setembro, as cultivares C 901 e C 805 apresentaram maiores rendimentos de grãos. Na semeadura de janeiro, destacou-se a cultivar C 901. O rendimento médio de grãos foi de 9,69t ha-1, na primeira época de semeadura e de 4,05t ha-1 na semeadura em janeiro. A redução média do rendimento de grãos com o atraso da semeadura foi de 58,2%, atingindo valores acima de 60% para as cultivares XL 560, P 3069 e SR 100. A semeadura realizada em setembro propiciou maior peso de mil grãos e número de grãos por espiga em relação a semeadura em janeiro.