The absence of formal work experience may affect the rate of cognitive decline in older adult women: findings from the health and retirement study.

Objective: This study investigated the relationship between years of employment and cognitive health among older non-Latinx Black, Latinx, and non-Latinx White women. We hypothesized that women who had never been formally employed (i.e., zero years of formal work experience) would exhibit a pronounced cognitive decline. Methods: Our study included 5,664 older adult women from the Health and Retirement Study (2010-2016) aged 65-101 (M = 75.41). Out of 5,664 participants, 850 identified as non-Latinx Black, 475 identified as Latinx, and 4,339 identified as non-Latinx White. Furthermore, 5,292 women indicated having a professional employment history of at least one year, whereas 372 women reported no formal work experience. The Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status-27 (TICS-27) was used to assess cognitive performance. Linear mixed effects models were conducted to assess whether employment history was associated with the rate of cognitive decline. Results: In all three racial and ethnic groups, lower age, higher education, greater number of years worked, fewer chronic conditions, and greater household income were associated with better cognitive performance at baseline (p < .05). Additionally, women who had not worked in any formal capacity had a lower baseline cognitive performance (p < .001) and a more extreme decline in cognitive performance over time (p = .04). Conclusion: In conclusion, we found that women without any formal work experience performed lower at baseline and experienced a steeper cognitive decline over time. These findings underscore the need to further explore the complex interrelationships between employment duration and cognitive trajectories, especially among older women and those from different racial and ethnic backgrounds.

Social Norms: A Missing Ingredient of Programs Seeking to Foster Women's Agency in Nutrition.

Social expectations play a crucial role in shaping dietary practices among women and children. However, despite significant attention to promoting social and behavioral change in nutrition-focused programs and research, the influence of social norms on women's agency in enhancing nutrition practices is often overlooked. In this perspective, we advocate for a paradigm shift by incorporating a "norms aware" approach. This underscores the importance of recognizing, measuring, and addressing the societal constraints and barriers that women and children encounter in their journey to improved nutrition. Drawing on insights from the United States Agency for International Development-funded Kulawa project in Niger, we highlight the implications of using social norms diagnosis tools to understand the contextual dynamics within child-feeding practices, informing intervention design, and targeted populations. Integrating a norms perspective into nutrition programming and research does not require an overhaul, but rather a nuanced application of understanding of contextual drivers, such as social norms and agency, that have been underemphasized. We delve into the role of the socio-ecologic system, underscore the importance of addressing power imbalances related to gender and social hierarchy, and emphasize that programs targeting norms should aim for community rather than individual-level change. We provide guidance for programs and research integrating a norms perspective, as well as examples of how tools, such as the Social Norms Exploration Tool and Social Norms Analysis Plot framework, can be applied to identify and prioritize social norms, facilitating the design of "norms aware" programs. Additionally, we highlight the critical role of community engagement and discuss the value of using qualitative and quantitative approaches to document the process and outcomes of social norms research, program design, and implementation. When we recognize the role of social norms in nutrition as a missing ingredient in nutrition research, programming, and social and behavior change strategies, we create opportunities for more effective and contextually relevant research and interventions that address the complexities of enhancing nutrition practices among women and children.

Conformity to masculine norms and its association with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences among adult men: A meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Studies typically show that men are at higher risk for heavy alcohol use than women. Research linking conformity to masculine norms and drinking behaviors among adult males has grown steadily during the past 10 years. We conducted the first meta-analysis that examines (a) the strength of the associations between conformity to masculine norms and alcohol use outcomes, and (b) the extent to which the strength of these associations would be affected by the specific type of drinking behavior or methodological factors. METHODS: We included 35 studies (N=32,412) in this meta-analysis that examined the association between scores on the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) and alcohol use outcomes. RESULTS: Across all studies, the average correlation between conformity to masculine norms and alcohol variables was small (r = 0.17). The associations between conformity to masculine norms and specific alcohol variables were also modest: alcohol use composite score of frequency and quantity (r = 0.20), binge drinking frequency (r = 0.14), and alcohol-related consequences (r = 0.16). The mean correlation between each CMNI subscale and alcohol variables was also small (alcohol use composite, rs range from 0.07 to 0.22; alcohol-related consequences, rs range from 0.04 to 0.29; frequency of binge drinking, rs range from -0.06 to 0.22). There was a significant difference in effect size by specific type of drinking behavior (i.e., effect sizes for binge drinking were smaller than effect sizes for other alcohol variables). Methodological factors (i.e., CMNI version; sample type: university vs. adult vs. mixed samples; country where the study was conducted) did not affect the associations between masculine norms and the alcohol-outcome variables. CONCLUSIONS: Conformity to masculine norms is modestly associated with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences. The effect sizes reported in this meta-analysis can assist in power analyses in future studies on conformity to masculine norms and specific drinking behaviors among adult males.

Norm learning, teaching, and change.

We present a broad notion of norms that can accommodate many of its interdisciplinary variants and offers a framework to ask questions about norm change. Rather than examining community norm change, we focus on changes in the individual's norm representations. These representations can be characterized by six properties (including as context specificity, deontic force, prevalence), and we examine which of the properties change as a result of norm learning and norm teaching. We first review research insights into norm learning based on observation, imitation, and various forms of inference. Then we examine norm learning that results from teaching, specifically teaching by modeling and demonstration, communication and instruction, and evaluative feedback. We finally speculate about how different kinds of norm change in a given community foster different kinds of norm learning in the individual community member.

Gender Differences in Normative Misperceptions of Food and Alcohol Disturbance Among a Multi-Site Sample of College Students.

Background: Engagement in food and alcohol disturbance (FAD; e.g., restricting caloric intake in the context of using alcohol to quicken/increase intoxication [FAD-intoxication] and/or to offset calories consumed from alcohol [FAD-calories]) confers risk to college students. Much research suggests that students overestimate the frequency of high-risk drinking among their peers, leading to greater participation in personal high-risk drinking. However, limited work has examined social norms related to FAD and their association with FAD behaviors. Objectives: The present study investigated: (a) whether normative misperceptions exist for FAD, (b) whether FAD norms are associated with FAD behaviors, and (c) whether gender moderates the association between FAD norms and FAD behaviors. Participants were 1,499 college students from six universities who consumed alcohol in the last month and identified as a woman or man. A plurality of participants identified as being White, non-Hispanic (59.5%) and female (68.1%), with a mean age of 19.66 (SD = 2.09) years. Results: Analyses revealed that students overestimated the frequency and approval of both FAD-intoxication and FAD-calories behaviors among their same-gender peers. Notably, these misperceptions were greater for FAD participators compared to FAD abstainers. Moreover, the associations between FAD norms and FAD behaviors were generally stronger for women compared to men. Conclusions: Our preliminary findings identify social norms as a potential target for interventions aiming to reduce FAD among college students. Further, our results provide preliminary evidence that college women, especially those who engage in FAD, may reap the greatest benefit from interventions targeting normative misperceptions (e.g., personalized normative feedback) related to FAD.

Cultural Tightness-Looseness and Individual Differences in Non-Normativeness Predict Stigmatization of Out-Groups: A Multilevel Cross-Cultural Study.

Although a large body of research has focused on the determinants of stigma, multilevel approaches that can identify both micro- and macro-level influences are rarely employed. We adopted a multilevel perspective with data from 174,325 participants from 80 countries in two waves-Wave 5 (Study 1) and Wave 6 (Study 2) of the World Values Survey. We examined how country-level normative tightness-looseness and individual-level non-normativeness relate to stigma toward racial and ethnic out-groups and groups deviating from social standards. Preregistered analyses showed that for both waves individuals in normatively tighter (vs. looser) societies exhibited more stigma generally. Also, for both waves, individuals higher in non-normativeness demonstrated a greater level of stigma toward members of immigrant, racial, or ethnic out-groups while exhibiting a lower level of stigma toward groups deviating from social standards. The current work thus reveals how characteristics of both individuals and culture jointly affect stigma.

Child marriages in Senegal: Qualitative study on the perceptions of adolescents in Kaolack and Gossas.

An estimated 650 million girls worldwide are married before their 18th birthday. The phenomenon is recurrent in sub-Saharan Africa with a prevalence of 18% and particularly in Senegal where one in three girls is married before the age of 18, i.e. a prevalence of 31%. Despite the legislative and legal arsenals, the laws on the legal age of marriage are not respected. The general objective of this study is to document the way in which gender norms define and influence the perceptions of adolescents in Gossas and Kaolack on child marriages and to collect possible solutions proposed to prevent/ reduce the practice. We used qualitative data collected in the two study sites. These were individual interviews with adolescents aged 10-19 (n=30) and focus groups (n=8) with the same target. The interviews were conducted in Wolof and transcribed into French then coded using Dedoose software. The results are presented for each age group and each gender then triangulated in order to highlight similarities and divergences according to the different perspectives. The results show that child marriages are rooted in patriarchal social and cultural norms, while reflecting gender inequalities. Thus, adolescents' arguments regarding the causes of child marriage align with those described in the literature on gender norms. Most adolescents cited poverty, tradition, fear of early pregnancy, and concern to preserve the girl's honor as the main factors contributing to the persistence of child marriages.

On estime à 650 millions le nombre de filles mariées dans le monde avant leur 18e anniversaire. Le phénomène est récurrent en Afrique subsaharienne avec une prévalence de 18% et particulièrement au Sénégal où, une fille sur trois est mariée avant l'âge de 18 ans, soit une prévalence de 31%. Malgré l'arsenal juridique législatif, les lois sur l'âge légal du mariage ne sont pas respectées. L'objectif général de cette étude est de documenter la manière dont les normes de genre définissent et influencent les perceptions des adolescent(e)s de Gossas et de Kaolack sur les mariages d'enfants et de recueillir les pistes de solutions proposées pour prévenir/réduire la pratique. Nous avons utilisé les données qualitatives collectées dans les deux sites de l'étude. Il s'agit d'entretiens individuels avec des adolescent(e)s de 10-19 ans (n=30) et de groupes de discussion (n=8) avec la même cible. Les entretiens ont été conduits en wolof et transcrits en Français puis codés à l'aide du logiciel Dedoose. Les résultats sont présentés pour chaque groupe d'âge et chaque sexe puis triangulés afin de ressortir les similarités et divergences selon les différentes perspectives. Les résultats montrent que les mariages d'enfants sont ancrés dans des normes sociales et culturelles patriarcales, tout en reflétant les inégalités de genre. Ainsi, les arguments des adolescent(e)s par rapport aux causes des mariages d'enfants s'alignent avec celles décrites dans la littérature sur les normes de genre. La plupart des adolescent(e)s ont évoqué la pauvreté, la tradition, la peur d'une grossesse précoce, le souci de préserver l'honneur de la fille comme étant les principaux facteurs contribuant à la persistance des mariages d'enfants.

Computational modeling of social decision-making.

Social decision-making is guided by a complex set of social norms. Computational modeling can play a significant role in enriching our understanding of these norms and how precisely they direct social choices. Here, we highlight three major advantages to using computational modeling, particularly models derived from Utility Theory, in the study of social norms. We illustrate how such models can help generate detailed processes of decision-making, enforce theoretical precision by delineating abstract concepts, and unpack when, and why, people adhere to specific social norms. For each benefit, we discuss a recent study which has employed modeling in the service of assessing the role of norms in decision-making, collectively revealing how computational modeling enables better prediction, description, and explanation of important social choices.

Identification of amnestic mild cognitive impairment among Black and White community-dwelling older adults using NIH Toolbox Cognition tablet battery.

OBJECTIVES: Identify which NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) subtest(s) best differentiate healthy controls (HC) from those with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and compare the discriminant accuracy between a model using a priori "Norm Adjusted" scores versus "Unadjusted" standard scores with age, sex, race/ethnicity, and education controlled for within the model. Racial differences were also examined. METHODS: Participants were Black/African American (B/AA) and White consensus-confirmed (HC = 96; aMCI = 62) adults 60-85 years old that completed the NIHTB-CB for tablet. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used in the Total Sample and separately for B/AA (n = 80) and White participants (n = 78). RESULTS: Picture Sequence Memory (an episodic memory task) was the highest loading coefficient across all DFA models. When stratified by race, differences were noted in the pattern of the highest loading coefficients within the DFAs. However, the overall discriminant accuracy of the DFA models in identifying HCs and those with aMCI did not differ significantly by race (B/AA, White) or model/score type (Norm Adjusted versus Unadjusted). CONCLUSIONS: Racial differences were noted despite the use of normalized scores or demographic covariates-highlighting the importance of including underrepresented groups in research. While the models were fairly accurate at identifying consensus-confirmed HCs, the models proved less accurate at identifying White participants with an aMCI diagnosis. In clinical settings, further work is needed to optimize computerized batteries and the use of NIHTB-CB norm adjusted scores is recommended. In research settings, demographically corrected scores or within model correction is suggested.

How language framing shapes the perception of social norms.

Language plays a crucial role in the transmission of social norms. The way language is used, referred to as language framing, shapes perceptions of social norms. This review synthesizes recent research from various fields to explore the mechanisms through which language framing influences social norm perception. We highlight five key mechanisms: attention redirection, context-specific pragmatic inference, point-of-reference alteration, trustworthiness and credibility judgment, and emotion elicitation. We underscore the need to understand how these mechanisms interact with each other and the necessity for a comprehensive model that integrates linguistic processes into social norm perceptions. Such a model would enhance our ability to craft effective communication strategies aimed at promoting positive behavior and driving social changes.

Social Determinants Influencing the Non-Adoption of Norms Favorable to the Prevention and Control of Type 2 Diabetes: Qualitative Research.

Diet, physical activity, and body shape play an essential role in the development of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and are the social dimensions most targeted by health professionals in their practices or intervention aimed at preventing and controlling T2D. However, several interventions focus more on individual factors and less on social determinants likely to influence the adoption of dietary, body, and physical activity standards favorable to the prevention and control of T2D. This study aims to explore the social determinants influencing the rejection or adoption of dietary, bodily, and physical activity norms favorable to the prevention and control of T2D among migrants from sub-Saharan Africa. A qualitative exploratory design guided data collection and analysis. Semi-structured qualitative interviews and focus groups were conducted between October 2022 and March 2023 in Montreal and Quebec Cities. The cost of food, the difficulty of accessing certain foods, a reliable level of income, work schedules, the gazes of relatives or communities, migration policies, disappointment and stressful situations linked to migratory status, racial microaggressions, and the lack of food guides adapted to the realities of MASS were the main determinants identified by the participants. These determinants can influence the adoption of public health recommendations on diet for the prevention and control of T2D. People living with T2D obviously have an important role to play, but much of the work lies outside their control. Therefore, Preventive, clinical, or awareness-raising interventions should more consider the life and structural contexts in which these people navigate without ignoring their pre-migratory rules of dietary, body, and physical activity norms.

Association between prolonged dual use of cigarettes and E-cigarettes and psychosocial factors among U.S. Smokers: Secondary data analysis from the 2013 to 2019 PATH study.

Objective: Dual use of combustible cigarettes and e-cigarettes is common among U.S. tobacco users, yet mis-perceptions about the harm of dual use persist, often oversimplifying its multifaceted exposure and health impacts. To address this gap, we evaluated the association of prolonged dual use (consecutive use for more than 1 year) with psychosocial factors, including perceptions of absolute and relative harm of e-cigarettes, social norms, and intentions to quit smoking, among U.S. adult smokers over time. Methods: Using the data from Waves 1 to 5 (2013-2019) from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, we characterized dual use and prolonged dual use by sociodemographics and psychosocial factors among U.S. adult smokers. We examined the association between dual use, including prolonged dual use, and psychosocial factors over time using logistic regression. Results: Dual use of smokers decreased from 19.8 % in 2013 to 16.4 % in 2019, and prolonged dual use among dual users decreased from 40.0 % in 2013 to 27.4 % in 2019. Prolonged dual users, independent of frequency of use, presented significantly higher cigarette dependence than temporary dual users. The perception of absolute e-cigarette harm (perceiving e-cigarettes as very or extremely harmful) was negatively associated with prolonged dual use. No significant association was found between prolonged dual use and perception of relative e-cigarette harm (perceiving e-cigarettes are less harmful than cigarettes) as well as with intentions to quit smoking and beliefs that most people disapprove of e-cigarette use. Conclusion: Increased perceptions of absolute harm of e-cigarettes, rather than relative harm, appear to decrease prolonged dual use. Public health strategies should consider further emphasis in educating users of the absolute harm, as opposed to endorsing e-cigarette use as a harm reduction alternative, in their tobacco cessation efforts to further discourage dual use.

Preliminary findings on the influence of the presence of others' eyes on food intake.

Background: The presence of others' eyes has been shown to influence food evaluation. Aim: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the presence of others' gaze would lead to a reduction in food intake in accordance with social norms. Methods: In this study, we enlisted the participation of 30 volunteers. During the experiment, participants had the opportunity to consume noodles freely as much as they wanted while viewing one of the three images: (1) featuring a person with open eyes (Open condition), (2) depicting a person with closed eyes (Closed condition), and (3) displaying an image devoid of a person (None condition). Results: Food consumption in each condition was 460.00 ± 20.97 g for the Open condition, 515.57 ± 22.97 g in the Closed condition, and 505.03 ± 21.05 g in None condition. The condition had a statistically significant main effect (F = 4.656, p = .013). The Least-Square means analysis revealed that food consumption in the Open condition was significantly lower than in the other two conditions (Closed and None conditions) (Closed - Open: t = 2.872 [95% CI: 16.844-94.289], p = .006; None - Open: t = 2.328 [95% CI: 6.311-83.756], p = .023). There was no significant difference in food consumption between the Closed and None conditions (Closed - None: t = 0.545 [95% CI: -28.189-49.256], p = .588). Conclusion: The results of the present study suggest that the presence of others' eyes would reduce food intake in accordance with social norms.

Women's perspectives on the role and impact of breastfeeding support groups in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding Support Groups are deemed effective in promoting breastfeeding initiation and duration, but few studies have addressed the mothers' perspectives. RESEARCH AIM: To investigate the role and impact of Breastfeeding Support Groups on breastfeeding mothers in Ireland from the women's perspective. Specific objectives included the assessment over time of breastfeeding self-efficacy knowledge, use, and limitations of BSGs and whether they contributed towards women achieving their breastfeeding goals. METHODS: An online survey using an established, validated Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy tool and custom-designed questions was administered at two time points as part of a larger sequential explanatory mixed methods' design. Cultural Historical Activity Theory was used as the theoretical framework. RESULTS: Majority of respondents at Phase 1 (N = 978) were multiparous, urban dwellers, and breastfeeding more than twelve months. Mothers first attend Breastfeeding Support Groups primarily to meet other breastfeeding mothers with many attending multiple types of group formats weekly. Qualities considered extremely important in breastfeeding supporters were: personal breastfeeding experience breastfeeding knowledge empathy understanding and listening skills There was no statistical difference in breastfeeding self-efficacy over time (z = -1.296, p = .195, r = -0.06). CONCLUSIONS: Participants attend Breastfeeding Support Groups to 'meet other mothers' in a convenient and local location, and not necessarily for a problem. Breastfeeding Support Groups normalise breastfeeding through social support, with breastfeeding supporters providing knowledge, empathy, understanding listening, and personal breastfeeding experience. Breastfeeding self-efficacy was high and did not increase over time, suggesting mothers need to be highly efficacious in this cohort to breastfeed.

Do institutions evolve like material technologies?

Norms and institutions enable large-scale human cooperation by creating shared expectations and changing individuals' incentives via monitoring or sanctioning. Like material technologies, these social technologies satisfy instrumental ends and solve difficult problems. However, the similarities and differences between the evolution of material technologies and the evolution of social technologies remain unresolved. Here, we review evidence suggesting that, compared to the evolution of material technologies, institutional and normative evolution exhibits constraints in the production of variation and the selection of useful variants. These constraints stem from the frequency-dependent nature of social technologies and limit the pace and scope of normative and institutional evolution. We conclude by reviewing research on the social transmission of institutions and norms and highlighting an experimental paradigm to study their cultural evolution.

Integrating social learning and network formation for social tipping towards a sustainable future.

Numerous psychological biases shape how we respond to observing others conforming to or diverging from social norms. Depending on our social networks, we may be more influenced by societal majorities, such as the widespread consumption of meat or frequent air travel, or by the sustainable lifestyles of our closest friends. The evolution of social norms is shaped by personal preferences, values, beliefs, and the structure of social networks. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for promoting a cultural shift towards sustainability, yet our grasp of how normative transformations occur remains limited. In this paper, we simulate an agent-based model in which agents choose between maintaining the status quo or adopting an alternative, engaging in a coordination game. Our model illustrates that interventions aimed at changing individual preferences may fail if the population is structured in polarised networks, where agents with similar preferences cluster together and primarily interact within their groups. These echo chambers limit the effectiveness of preference-based interventions. However, we show that a subsequent intervention that increases the salience of behaviours from agents with dissimilar preferences can successfully tip the population from a status quo equilibrium to an alternative norm equilibrium. This paper outlines the challenges policymakers face in designing interventions for catalysing positive social norm changes. We argue for a reevaluation of current methodologies for modelling and empirically investigating norm change. Our primary recommendation for future research is a more comprehensive incorporation of the myriad ways individuals respond to social information and network formation.

Majority rule: Do minorities live in 'tighter' social worlds?

Exploring social norms through a diversity perspective, this review examines whether minorities live in 'tighter' worlds, wherein they are subject to stricter rules and punishments. Integrating research from psychology, economics, and organizational behavior, we first examine whether minorities are more likely to have tightness imposed on them-i.e., receive more monitoring and harsher penalties in response to norm violations, compared to their majority counterparts. Turning to the subjective experience of minority group members, we explore whether minorities are calibrated to these penalties and experience greater lived tightness-the feeling of being chronically surveilled, judged harshly, and fearing excessive punishment for wrongdoing. We suggest that both imposed and lived tightness contributes to power inequalities and patterns of segregation. This framework helps to organize disparate research streams investigating minorities' experience of social norms, and highlights unanswered questions about when, and why, minority group members feel more constrained by social rules, as well as the consequences of these experiences for their economic and psychological well-being.

Norm Emergence through Conflict-Blocking Interactions in Industrial Internet of Things Environments.

Norms have been effectively utilized to facilitate smooth interactions among agents. Norms are usually the global data that agents cannot directly access in complex environments; instead, norms can only be indirectly accessed by agents via maintaining their own beliefs about norms. Establishing norms using decentralized interaction-based methods has attracted much attention. However, the current methods overlook Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) environments. In IIoT, there is a prevalent feature called "conflict-blocking", where agents' conflicting action strategies can block an interaction from being completed or even cause danger. To facilitate norm emergence in IIoT, we propose a framework to support agent decisions in conflict-blocking interactions. The framework aids in achieving system scalability by integrating the fusion of agent beliefs about norms. We prove that the proposed framework guarantees norm emergence. We also theoretically and experimentally analyze the time required for norm emergence under the influence of various factors, such as the number of agents. A vehicle movement simulator is also developed to vividly illustrate the process of norm emergence.

Normative data on nasalance scores for French speaking children.

INTRODUCTION: The objectives of this study are to establish normative nasalance values in European French for children aged 8-10 years, to study the factors likely to influence nasalance values, and to ensure that the nasometer allows the differentiation of control subjects from subjects with velopharyngeal insufficiency. METHODS: Nasal balance scores were calculated using the Nasometer II 6450 (KayPENTAX) for 50 control subjects producing 31 verbal stimuli specifically designed for the French language. Nasalance scores were analyzed and compared with 7 subjects with velopharyngeal insufficiency. RESULTS: This study provided nasalance norms for each verbal stimulus. The phonetic content of the stimuli (nasality, vowel height, voicing) was a major factor influencing the nasalance score. However, the characteristics of the speaker (gender and age) had a non-significant effect, with the major exception of the presence or absence of velopharyngeal insufficiency. CONCLUSION: This study confirmed the need to use established normative values in the patient's language and for each verbal stimulus. Although the effect of vowel height on the nasalance score has been demonstrated, this study is the first to show an effect of voicing. Once normative nasalance scores are established, a validation study with a larger pathological population will be necessary. This study establishes normative nasalance scores in European French in children.

Resisting harmful social norms change using social inoculation.

Social norms are thought to spread through processes of collective contagion, requiring multiple social contacts for diffusion. The spread of harmful social norms is heightened with the spread of misinformation online, especially as falsehoods spread faster than truth. Social inoculation, an intervention approach developed in the 1960s, is an effective prophylactic against harmful social norms spread. Using the analogy of a medical vaccine to develop resistance to viruses encountered in the wild, the approach exposes individuals to weakened forms of arguments they will encounter in naturalistic settings, in order to psychologically inoculate them against falsehoods and harmful social influence. Inoculation interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in the short-term and treatment effects can persist with regular 'booster' sessions.