Energy balance drives diurnal and nocturnal brain transcriptome rhythms.

Plasticity in daily timing of activity has been observed in many species, yet the underlying mechanisms driving nocturnality and diurnality are unknown. By regulating how much wheel-running activity will be rewarded with a food pellet, we can manipulate energy balance and switch mice to be nocturnal or diurnal. Here, we present the rhythmic transcriptome of 21 tissues, including 17 brain regions, sampled every 4 h over a 24-h period from nocturnal and diurnal male CBA/CaJ mice. Rhythmic gene expression across tissues comprised different sets of genes with minimal overlap between nocturnal and diurnal mice. We show that non-clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) change, and the habenula was most affected. Our results indicate that adaptive flexibility in daily timing of behavior is supported by gene expression dynamics in many tissues and brain regions, especially in the habenula, which suggests a crucial role for the observed nocturnal-diurnal switch.

Seasonal variations in locomotor activity rhythm and diurnal activity in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) under mesic semi-natural conditions.

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is a large ungulate that copes well with the xeric environment of the desert. Its peculiar adaptation to heat and dehydration is well-known. However, its behavior and general activity is far from being completely understood. The present study was carried out to investigate the ecological effect of the various seasons on the locomotor activity (LA) rhythm and diurnal activity of this species. Six adult female camels were maintained under mesic semi-natural conditions of the environment during four periods of 10 days in each season: autumn, winter, spring and summer. In addition, three female camels were used to test the effect of rain on the LA rhythm during a period of 18 days during the winter. The animal's LA was recorded using the locomotion scoring method. Camels displayed a clear 24.0h LA rhythm throughout the four seasons. Activity was intense during Day-time (6-22 fold higher in comparison to night) and dropped or completely disappeared during nighttime. Mean daytime total activity was significantly higher in the summer as compared to winter. Regardless of the season, the active phase in camels coincided with the time of the photophase and thermophase. Furthermore, the daily duration of the time spent active was directly correlated to the seasonal changes of photoperiod. The diurnal activity remained unchanged over the four seasons. For each season, the start and the end of the active phase were synchronized with the onset of sunrise and sunset. At these time periods, temperature remained incredibly stable with a change ranging from 0.002 to 0.210°C; whereas, changes of light intensity were greater and faster with a change from 0.1 to 600 lux representing a variation of 3215-7192 fold in just 25-29 min. Rainfall affected the pattern of the LA rhythm with occurrence of abnormal nocturnal activity during nighttime disturbing nocturnal rest and sleep. Here we show that the dromedary camel exhibits significant seasonal changes of its activity within daylight hours. However, the diurnal pattern remains unchanged regardless of the season; whereas, abnormal nocturnal activity is observed during periods of rain. The activity onset and offset in this species seems to be primarily driven by the changes in light intensity at dusk and dawn.

Temporal niche switching in Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx): Seasonal plasticity of 24h activity patterns in a large desert mammal.

The Arabian oryx, a moderately large mammal that inhabits a harsh desert environment, has been shown to exhibit seasonal variations in activity and inactivity patterns. Here we analyzed the continuous year-round activity patterns of twelve free-roaming Arabian oryx under natural conditions from two varying desert environments in Saudi Arabia using abdominally implanted activity meters. We simultaneously recorded weather parameters at both sites to determine whether environmental factors are responsible for temporal niche switching as well as the seasonal structuring and timing of this behavioural plasticity. Our results demonstrate that Arabian oryx undergo temporal niche switching of 24h activity patterns at a seasonal level and exhibit distinct nocturnal/crepuscular activity during summer, diurnal activity during winter and intermittent patterns of behaviour during the transitional seasons of autumn and spring. In addition, the oryx exhibited inter- and intra-seasonal variations in the temporal budgeting of 24h activity patterns. Strong relationships with both photoperiod and ambient temperatures were found and in some instances suggested that increasing ambient temperatures are a primary driving force behind seasonal shifts in activity patterns. These adaptive patterns may be dictated by the availability of food and water, which in turn are strongly influenced by seasonal climate variations. Overall, the adaptive responses of free-roaming Arabian oryx in such harsh and non-laboratorial conditions provide a framework for comparing wild populations as well as aiding conservation efforts.

Diurnality as an energy-saving strategy: energetic consequences of temporal niche switching in small mammals.

Endogenous daily (circadian) rhythms allow organisms to anticipate daily changes in the environment. Most mammals are specialized to be active during the night (nocturnal) or day (diurnal). However, typically nocturnal mammals become diurnal when energetically challenged by cold or hunger. The circadian thermo-energetics (CTE) hypothesis predicts that diurnal activity patterns reduce daily energy expenditure (DEE) compared with nocturnal activity patterns. Here, we tested the CTE hypothesis by quantifying the energetic consequences of relevant environmental factors in mice. Under natural conditions, diurnality reduces DEE by 6-10% in energetically challenged mice. Combined with night-time torpor, as observed in mice under prolonged food scarcity, DEE can be reduced by ∼20%. The dominant factor determining the energetic benefit of diurnality is thermal buffering provided by a sheltered resting location. Compared with nocturnal animals, diurnal animals encounter higher ambient temperatures during both day and night, leading to reduced thermogenesis costs in temperate climates. Analysis of weather station data shows that diurnality is energetically beneficial on almost all days of the year in a temperate climate region. Furthermore, diurnality provides energetic benefits at all investigated geographical locations on European longitudinal and latitudinal transects. The reduction of DEE by diurnality provides an ultimate explanation for temporal niche switching observed in typically nocturnal small mammals under energetically challenging conditions. Diurnality allows mammals to compensate for reductions in food availability and temperature as it reduces energetic needs. The optimal circadian organization of an animal ultimately depends on the balance between energetic consequences and other fitness consequences of the selected temporal niche.