APOL1 variant alleles associate with reduced risk for opportunistic infections in HIV infection.

Apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1), an innate immune factor against African trypanosoma brucei, inhibits HIV-1 in vitro. The impact of APOL1 G1-G2 variants on HIV-1-associated opportunistic infections (OIs) is unknown. Here, we report findings from a metaanalysis of four HIV/AIDS prospective cohorts (ALIVE, LSOCA, MACS, and WIHS) including 2066 African American participants. Using a global test combining all four cohorts, carriage of two APOL1 variant alleles is associated with a 50% reduction in odds of OI (combined OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.33-0.76). Subgroup analysis of OI etiological categories (viral, parasitic, fungal and Mycobacterial) suggests the possibility of specific protection from fungal infections (OR 0.54. 95% CI 0.32-0.93; PBonferroni corrected = 0.08). We observe an association of APOL1 variant alleles with host protection against OI in HIV-positive individuals. The study suggests a broader role of APOL1 variant alleles in innate immunity in vivo.

Deficiency of mannose-binding lectin is a risk of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in a natural history cohort of people living with HIV/AIDS in Northern Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) plays a pivotal role in innate immunity; however, its impact on susceptibility to opportunistic infections (OIs) has not yet been examined in a natural history cohort of people living with HIV/AIDS. METHODS: We used archived samples to analyze the association between MBL expression types and risk of major OIs including Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP), cryptococcosis, talaromycosis, toxoplasmosis, and tuberculosis in a prospective cohort in Northern Thailand conducted from 1 July 2000 to 15 October 2002 before the national antiretroviral treatment programme was launched. RESULTS: Of 632 patients, PCP was diagnosed in 96 (15.2%) patients, including 45 patients with new episodes during the follow-up period (1006.5 person-years). The total history of PCP was significantly associated with low MBL expression type: high/intermediate (81/587, 13.8%), low (10/33, 30.3%) and deficient (5/12, 41.7%) (p = 0.001), whereas the history of other OIs showed no relation with any MBL expression type. Kaplan-Meier analysis (n = 569; log-rank p = 0.011) and Cox's proportional hazards model revealed that deficient genotype dramatically increased the risk of PCP, which is independent upon sex, age, CD4 count, HIV-1 viral load and hepatitis B and C status (adjusted hazard ratio 7.93, 95% confidence interval 2.19-28.67, p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Deficiency of MBL expression is a strong risk factor determining the incidence of PCP but not other major OIs.

Diversity of the hepatitis C virus NS5B gene during HIV co-infection.

Viral diversity is an important feature of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and an important predictor of disease progression and treatment response. HIV/HCV co-infection is associated with enhanced HCV replication, increased fibrosis, and the development of liver disease. HIV also increases quasispecies diversity of HCV structural genes, although limited data are available regarding the impact of HIV on non-structural genes of HCV, particularly in the absence of direct-acting therapies. The genetic diversity and presence of drug resistance mutations within the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NS5B) gene were examined in 3 groups of women with HCV genotype 1a infection, including those with HCV mono-infection, antiretroviral (ART)-naïve women with HIV/HCV co-infection and CD4 cell count <350 cells/mm3, and ART-naïve women with HIV/HCV co-infection and CD4 cell count ≥350 cells/mm3. None had ever been treated for HCV infection. There was evidence of significant diversity across the entire NS5B gene in all women. There were several nucleotides and amino acids with distinct distributions across the three study groups, although no obvious clustering of NS5B sequences was observed based on HIV co-infection or CD4 cell count. Polymorphisms at amino acid positions associated with resistance to dasabuvir and sofosbuvir were limited, although the Q309R variant associated with ribavirin resistance was present in 12 individuals with HCV mono-infection, 8 HIV/HCV co-infected individuals with CD4 <350 cells/mm3, and 12 HIV/HCV co-infected individuals with CD4 ≥350 cells/mm3. Previously reported fitness altering mutations were rare. CD8+ T cell responses against the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B57-restricted epitopes NS5B2629-2637 and NS5B2936-2944 are critical for HCV control and were completely conserved in 44 (51.8%) and 70 (82.4%) study participants. These data demonstrate extensive variation across the NS5B gene. Genotypic variation may have a profound impact on HCV replication and pathogenesis and deserves careful evaluation.

K1 gene transformation activities in AIDS-related and classic type Kaposi's sarcoma: Correlation with clinical presentation.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) causes both AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and classic KS, but their clinical presentations are different, and respective mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The KSHV K1 gene is reportedly involved in tumorigenesis through the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM). Since we found the sequence variations in the K1 gene of KSHV isolated from AIDS-related KS and classic KS, we hypothesized that the transformation activity of the K1 gene contributes to the different clinical presentations. To evaluate our hypothesis, we compared the transformation activities of the K1 gene between AIDS-related KS and classic KS. We also analyzed ITAM activities and the downstream AKT and NF-κB. We found that the transformation activity of AIDS-related K1 was greater than that of classic K1, and that AIDS-related K1 induced higher ITAM activity than classic K1, causing more potent Akt and NF-κB activities. K1 downregulation by siRNA in AIDS-related K1 expressing cells induced a loss of transformation properties and decreased both Akt and NF-κB activities, suggesting a correlation between the transformation activity of K1 and ITAM signaling. Our study indicates that the increased transformation activity of AIDS-related K1 is associated with its clinical aggressiveness, whereas the weak transformation activity of classic type K1 is associated with a mild clinical presentation and spontaneous regression. The mechanism of spontaneous regression of classic KS may provide new therapeutic strategy to cancer.

Advances in the understanding of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission in HIV-endemic settings.

Tuberculosis claims more human lives than any other infectious disease. This alarming epidemic has fuelled the development of novel antimicrobials and diagnostics. However, public health interventions that interrupt transmission have been slow to emerge, particularly in HIV-endemic settings. Transmission of tuberculosis is complex, involving various environmental, bacteriological, and host factors, among which concomitant HIV infection is important. Preventing person-to-person spread is central to halting the epidemic and, consequently, tuberculosis transmission is now being studied with renewed interest. In this Series paper, we review recent advances in the understanding of tuberculosis transmission, from the view of source-case infectiousness, inherent susceptibility of exposed individuals, appending tools for predicting risk of disease progression, the biophysical nature of the contagion, and the environments in which transmission occurs and is sustained in populations. We focus specifically on how HIV infection affects these features with a view to describing novel transmission blocking strategies in HIV-endemic settings.

"Tuberculosis in advanced HIV infection is associated with increased expression of IFNγ and its downstream targets".

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) is the major cause of death in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-infected individuals. However, diagnosis of TB in HIV remains challenging particularly when HIV infection is advanced. Several gene signatures and serum protein biomarkers have been identified that distinguish active TB from latent infection. Our study was designed to assess if gene expression signatures and cytokine levels would distinguish active TB in advanced HIV. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study of whole blood RNA-Seq and plasma cytokine/chemokine analysis in HIV-infected with CD4+ T cell count of ≤ 100 cells/µl, with and without active TB. Next, the overlap of the differentially expressed genes (DEG) with the published signatures was performed and then receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analysis was done on small gene discriminators to determine their performance in distinguishing TB in advanced HIV. ELISA was performed on plasma to evaluate cytokine and chemokine levels. RESULTS: Hierarchical clustering of the transcriptional profiles showed that, in general, HIV-infected individuals with TB (TB-HIV) clustered separately from those without TB. IPA indicated that the TB-HIV signature was characterized by an increase in inflammatory signaling pathways. Analysis of overlaps between DEG in our data set with published TB signatures revealed that significant overlap was seen with one TB signature and one TB-IRIS signature. ROC analysis revealed that transcript levels of FcGR1A (AUC = 0.85) and BATF2 (AUC = 0.82), previously reported as consistent single gene classifiers of active TB irrespective of HIV status, performed successfully even in advanced HIV. Plasma protein levels of IFNγ, a stimulator of FcGR1A and BATF2, and CXCL10, also up-regulated by IFNγ, accurately classified active TB (AUC = 0.98 and 0.91, respectively) in advanced HIV. Neither of these genes nor proteins distinguished between TB and TB-IRIS. CONCLUSIONS: Gene expression of FcGR1A and BATF2, and plasma protein levels of IFNγ and CXCL10 have the potential to independently detect TB in advanced HIV. However, since other lung diseases were not included in this study, these final candidates need to be validated as specific to TB in the advanced HIV population with TB.

RNA-Seq of Kaposi's sarcoma reveals alterations in glucose and lipid metabolism.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the etiologic agent of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). It is endemic in a number of sub-Saharan African countries with infection rate of >50%. The high prevalence of HIV-1 coupled with late presentation of advanced cancer staging make KS the leading cancer in the region with poor prognosis and high mortality. Disease markers and cellular functions associated with KS tumorigenesis remain ill-defined. Several studies have attempted to investigate changes of the gene profile with in vitro infection of monoculture models, which are not likely to reflect the cellular complexity of the in vivo lesion environment. Our approach is to characterize and compare the gene expression profile in KS lesions versus non-cancer tissues from the same individual. Such comparisons could identify pathways critical for KS formation and maintenance. This is the first study that utilized high throughput RNA-seq to characterize the viral and cellular transcriptome in tumor and non-cancer biopsies of African epidemic KS patients. These patients were treated anti-retroviral therapy with undetectable HIV-1 plasma viral load. We found remarkable variability in the viral transcriptome among these patients, with viral latency and immune modulation genes most abundantly expressed. The presence of KSHV also significantly affected the cellular transcriptome profile. Specifically, genes involved in lipid and glucose metabolism disorder pathways were substantially affected. Moreover, infiltration of immune cells into the tumor did not prevent KS formation, suggesting some functional deficits of these cells. Lastly, we found only minimal overlaps between our in vivo cellular transcriptome dataset with those from in vitro studies, reflecting the limitation of in vitro models in representing tumor lesions. These findings could lead to the identification of diagnostic and therapeutic markers for KS, and will provide bases for further mechanistic studies on the functions of both viral and cellular genes that are involved.

Estimation of biofilm, proteinase & phospholipase production of the Candida species isolated from the oropharyngeal samples in HIV-infected patients.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Candida, the most common opportunistic infection in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), attributes its pathogenicity to its virulence factors, mainly the biofilms, the proteinases and the phospholipases. There is a significant interplay of these factors during the HIV infection. This study was aimed to estimate the biofilm, proteinase and phospholipase production in Candida species isolated from the oropharyngeal samples in the HIV-infected patients. METHODS: A total of 126 consecutive HIV-positive patients were screened for Candida growth using oropharyngeal swabs. Identification was done by Gram staining, germ tube test, chlamydospore identification, chromagar and biochemical tests on Vitek 2. Biofilm production was observed on Sabouraud's dextrose broth with glucose, phospholipase production in egg yolk agar medium and proteinase production in bovine serum albumin agar medium. RESULTS: Of a total of 126 patients, 53 (42.06%) showed Candida growth: Candida albicans (n=46, 86.8%) was most common followed by the non-albicans Candida (NAC) (n=7, 13.93%). Of a total 33 (62.3%) biofilm positive isolates, significant production was observed in the NAC species (P <0.05). C. albicans reported the highest phospholipase (n=37/41, 90.24%) and proteinase (n=37/43, 86%) activities in a total of 41 (77%) phospholipase positive and 43 (81.1%) proteinase positive isolates. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: Although C. albicans was the most common Candida species identified in HIV positive patients, the emergence of NAC was of special concern. Virulence factors such as biofilms, proteinases and phospholipases were noted in both these groups. Further research is required for better understanding of the pathogenic role of Candida species so as to aid in therapeutic interventions.

Genotypic distribution of HHV-8 in AIDS individuals without and with Kaposi sarcoma: Is genotype B associated with better prognosis of AIDS-KS?

AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma (AIDS-KS) caused by human herpes virus 8 (HHV-8) is the most severe and resistant form of KS tumor. Our aim was to verify whether there is an association between HHV-8 variability and development of AIDS-KS in Brazil by comparing the HHV-8 variability between individuals without and with KS. Saliva samples and blood, when available, were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for detection of the fragments of ORF K1 of HHV-8, which were then genotyped and analyzed regarding the genetic variability. Our study described 106 positive cases for HHV-8 in the saliva from 751 AIDS patients without previous KS. In addition, we performed a phylogenetic analysis of HHV-8 in 34 of the 106 AIDS patients without KS and in 33 of the 37 patients with active KS. The distribution of HHV-8 genotypes A, B, C, and F in AIDS individuals was indistinguishable by comparing non-KS and KS groups, as well as regarding ethnicity. Considering the KS group, genotype B was associated with better prognosis of KS tumor. Interestingly, we found a particular profile of diversity within clade C and 2 recombinant patterns of HHV-8 in the saliva of AIDS individuals without KS. We emphasize the need to achieve standard genotyping protocol for ORF K1 amplification, thus allowing for substantial detection of HHV-8 variants. Our findings can shed light on the role of HHV-8 variability in the pathogenesis of AIDS-KS.

Discriminative expression of whole blood genes in HIV patients with latent and active TB in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Transcriptomic host biomarkers could assist in developing effective diagnostics, vaccines and therapeutics for tuberculosis (TB). However, different biomarkers may be discriminatory in different populations depending on the host and bacillary genetics and HIV infection, and need to be addressed. METHODS: The expression levels of 45 genes that are known to be involved in or affected by TB pathogenesis were analyzed using dual color Reverse Transcriptase Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (dcRT-MLPA) assay in whole blood of 106 HIV positive individuals including active TB patients (TB(+)HIV(+), n = 29), and non TB patients that are tuberculin skin test positive (TST+) (TST(+)HIV(+), n = 26), or TST negative (TST(-)HIV(+), n = 51). RESULTS: Between the two clinical groups (TB(+)HIV(+) vs. TST(-)HIV(+)) 8 genes were differently expressed (CCL19, CD14, CD8A, FPR1, IL7R, CCL22, TNFRSF1A, and FCGR1A); between TB(+)HIV(+) vs. TST(+)HIV(+), 6 genes (CD14, IL7R, TIMP2, CCL22, TNFRSF1A, and FCGR1A) were differently expressed. Since no difference in gene expression was revealed between TST(+)HIV(+) vs. TST(-)HIV(+), we clustered both the TST(+)HIV(+) and TST(-)HIV(+) individuals as one group (TST(+/-)HIV(+)) and compared gene expression with TB(+)HIV(+) patients. Thus, the results revealed that the levels of five genes (CD8A, TIMP2, CCL22, FCGR1A and TNFRSF1A) were the most accurate single gene markers for differentiation between TB(+)HIV(+) and TST(+/-)HIV(+), with AUCs of 0.71, 0.71, 0.79, 0.83 and 0.73, respectively. However, the combination of two genes (CCL22 + FCGR1A) and FCGR1A alone were the most accurate marker for differentiation between the two groups (TB(+)HIV(+) and TST(+/-)HIV(+)) with AUC of 0.85 and 0.83, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We showed that five genes (CD8A, TIMP2, CCL22, FCGR1A and TNFRSF1A), specifically FCGR1A and CCL22 have the potential to discriminate active TB from non-active TB in HIV patients in Ethiopia and could be used to improve diagnostic tools for active TB in HIV patients, and to understand the pathogenesis of TB/HIV coinfection.

High levels of plasma interferon gamma and +874T/A gene polymorphism is associated with HIV-TB co-infection.

OBJECTIVE: Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most frequent opportunistic infections in HIV patients leading to increased morbidity and death rate. This study was carried out to investigate the role of the cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α level and their single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in HIV-TB co-infection. METHODS: 247 HIV-TB (124 HIV-pulmonary TB, 123 HIV-extra pulmonary TB), 126 HIV positive individuals without tuberculosis and 129 healthy subjects (HS) were included to measure plasma levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α by sandwich ELISA and One way ANOVA statistical analysis was carried out among the groups. The SNPs of TNF-α-308 G/A, -238 G/A and IFN-γ+874 T/A were also investigated using amplification refractory mutation system polymerase chain reaction (ARMS-PCR). The frequencies between the groups were compared by Pearson's chi square statistical analysis. RESULTS: Plasma IFN-γ and TNF-α were significantly elevated in HIV-TB and TB (p<0.05) as compared to those in HS group. There was significant association between IFN-γ+874 'A' allele and AA genotype in HIV-TB groups compared to HS and HIV (p<0.05) and no such association was found for TNF-α-308 and -238. The plasma cytokine levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ reveals no significant association with levels of IFN-γ+874 T/A, TNF-α -308 G/Aand-238 G/A genotypes in any of the study groups. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the present study revealed elevated plasma IFN-γ and its +874 'A' allele are associated with HIV-TB co-infection indicating 1.6 times increased risk for TB susceptibility. Elevated TNF-α levels in TB and HIV-TB suggest its involvement in TB pathogenesis.

Association of interleukin-8 gene polymorphisms in HIV patients with opportunistic infections in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Opportunistic infections (OIs) are common among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients; however, genetic susceptibility to these infections has not been studied. Recent studies have shown that interleukin-8 (IL-8) A/T genotype carriers are more susceptible to a variety of diseases. In this study, we showed the effects of IL-8 gene polymorphisms on OIs and symptoms such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), tuberculosis (TB), diarrhea, shortness of breath, weight loss, and viral load, in HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients. Genomic DNA was purified from mouthwash samples collected from patients attending HIV centers in the Vhembe district. The IL-8 (-251) A/T locus was genotyped using allele-specific polymerase chain reaction followed by agarose gel electrophoresis. The results showed a weak association between the IL-8 AA genotype and OIs such as STDs (P = 0.143), diarrhea (P = 0.906), and TB (P = 0.762). Significant associations were found between the IL-8 AT genotype and weight loss (P = 0.019), shortness of breath (P = 0.043), and skin problems (P = 0.003). Low viral load was also found to be significantly associated with IL-8 AA genotype (P = 0.009). The present study suggests that different IL-8 genotypes are associated with resistance to various OIs. However, further studies using larger samples sizes are needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Understanding HIV-Mycobacteria synergism through comparative proteomics of intra-phagosomal mycobacteria during mono- and HIV co-infection.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the most common co-infection in HIV patients and a serious co-epidemic. Apart from increasing the risk of reactivation of latent tuberculosis (TB), HIV infection also permits opportunistic infection of environmental non-pathogenic mycobacteria. To gain insights into mycobacterial survival inside host macrophages and identify mycobacterial proteins or processes that influence HIV propagation during co-infection, we employed proteomics approach to identify differentially expressed intracellular mycobacterial proteins during mono- and HIV co-infection of human THP-1 derived macrophage cell lines. Of the 92 proteins identified, 30 proteins were upregulated during mycobacterial mono-infection and 40 proteins during HIV-mycobacteria co-infection. We observed down-regulation of toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules, up-regulation of cation transporters, Type VII (Esx) secretion systems, proteins involved in cell wall lipid or protein metabolism, glyoxalate pathway and branched chain amino-acid synthesis during co-infection. The bearings of these mycobacterial factors or processes on HIV propagation during co-infection, as inferred from the proteomics data, were validated using deletion mutants of mycobacteria. The analyses revealed mycobacterial factors that possibly via modulating the host environment, increased viral titers during co-infection. The study provides new leads for investigations towards hitherto unknown molecular mechanisms explaining HIV-mycobacteria synergism, helping address diagnostics and treatment challenges for effective co-epidemic management.

Late emergence of A594V and L595W mutations related to ganciclovir resistance in a patient with HCMV retinitis and long-term HIV progression

The emergence of ganciclovir (GCV) resistance during the treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is a serious clinical challenge, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. In this case report, we describe the emergence of two consecutive mutations (A594V and L595W) related to GCV resistance in a patient with HCMV retinitis and long-term HIV progression after approximately 240 days of GCV use. Following the diagnosis of retinitis, the introduction of GCV did not result in viral load reduction. The detected mutations appeared late in the treatment, and we propose that other factors (high initial HCMV load, previous GCV exposure, low CD4+ cell count), in addition to the presence of resistance mutations, may have contributed to the treatment failure of HCMV infection in this patient.

Gene polymorphisms of mannose-binding lectin confer susceptibility to Pneumocystis pneumonia in HIV-infected patients.

BACKGROUND: Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) plays an important role in innate immunity. The aim of this study was to determine whether genetic variants of MBL confer susceptibility to Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. OBJECTIVE: HIV patients (n = 53) having CD4 counts <200/µL who were admitted to our hospital were analyzed. Of these 53 patients, 30 had PCP at admission, and 23 did not. Genotypes at six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in MBL2 gene and serum MBL levels were determined for each patient, and compared between patients with or without PCP. We also examined whether MBL enhances phagocytosis of macrophages against rat-type Pneumocystis organism in vitro. RESULTS: Genotypes associated with low production of MBL were significantly more common in the PCP group than in the non-PCP group (P = 0.049, odds ratio 2.17, 95% CI 1.02-4.63). Serum MBL levels were significantly higher in the non-PCP group (P = 0.039). Findings from in vitro experiments indicated that MBL act as a direct opsonin enhancing macrophage-mediated phagocytosis of Pneumocystis organisms. CONCLUSION: Genetic variation of MBL production influences susceptibility to PCP in patients with advanced HIV infection, and can be regarded as a risk factor for PCP.

Late emergence of A594V and L595W mutations related to ganciclovir resistance in a patient with HCMV retinitis and long-term HIV progression.

The emergence of ganciclovir (GCV) resistance during the treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is a serious clinical challenge, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. In this case report, we describe the emergence of two consecutive mutations (A594V and L595W) related to GCV resistance in a patient with HCMV retinitis and long-term HIV progression after approximately 240 days of GCV use. Following the diagnosis of retinitis, the introduction of GCV did not result in viral load reduction. The detected mutations appeared late in the treatment, and we propose that other factors (high initial HCMV load, previous GCV exposure, low CD4+ cell count), in addition to the presence of resistance mutations, may have contributed to the treatment failure of HCMV infection in this patient.

Toll-like receptor gene variants and bacterial vaginosis among HIV-1 infected and uninfected African women.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal syndrome associated with altered microflora that increases the risk of preterm delivery and acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. The cause of BV is unknown although toll-like receptors (TLRs), that are central to innate immune responses, may be important. We evaluated associations between TLR SNPs and BV among HIV-1 infected and uninfected African women. Logistic regression was used to assess associations between SNPs (N=99) in TLRs 2-4, 7-9 and BV (as classified by Nugent's criteria). Among HIV-1 uninfected women, TLR7 rs5743737 and TLR7 rs1634323 were associated with a decreased risk of BV, whereas TLR7 rs179012 was associated with an increased risk. TLR2 SNP rs3804099 was associated with a decreased risk of BV among HIV-1 infected women. Our findings indicate that there may be differences in TLR association with BV among HIV-1 infected and HIV-1 uninfected women.

Interleukin-7 receptor gene polymorphism at +1237 locus and its effect on susceptibility to opportunistic infections among HIV and AIDS patients in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Over the past decade, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated correlations between host genetics and susceptibility to diseases. However, few studies have investigated the effects of host genetics on the occurrence of opportunistic infections among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. In the present study, the frequency of the interleukin (IL)-7Rα+1237 A/G single nucleotide polymorphisms was determined in relation to opportunistic infection occurrence among HIV and AIDS patients in the Vhembe District. Demographic, clinical, and socioeconomic status data were collected from patients using a structured questionnaire. Genomic DNA was extracted from mouthwash samples using the QIAmp Blood Mini Kit. Genotyping of the IL-7Rα+1237 gene was conducted using a sequence-specific polymerase chain reaction method. We found that the IL-7Rα+1237 genotype distribution in our study population differed from those in European populations with a predominance of the A/G genotype. Individuals carrying the A/G genotype primarily suffered from chest pain (χ(2) = 5.016, P = 0.025), while individuals carrying the G/G genotype were protected from chest pain but had a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted disease (23 vs 16.9%); however, the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.435). Individuals carrying the A/A genotype were more susceptible to diarrhea (32 vs 13.6%) (P = 0.034). Our data will support gene therapy and may be used to modify the course of diseases among HIV patients as well as the general population. Further studies using larger populations are needed to confirm these hypotheses.

Distribution of CXCR2 +1208 T/C gene polymorphisms in relation to opportunistic infections among HIV-infected patients in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Interleukin 8 (IL-8) is a chemokine produced by macrophages and other cell types, including epithelial cells, and its receptor is CXCR2. IL-8 plays an important role in the initiation and amplification of inflammatory diseases, including opportunistic infections. With the advent of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, opportunistic infections have become major health concerns. However, the role of host genetics on the occurrence of these infections has not been clearly defined. In this study, genomic DNA was extracted from 185 HIV-infected individuals in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Allele-specific polymerase chain reaction was used to genotype the CXCR2 +1208 T/C gene. Genotypes CC, TT, and TC were associated with chest pains, frequent headaches, loss of weight, diarrhea, and loss of appetite among HIV patients. A significant association between the CC genotype and chest pains was found (P=0.035). The TC genotype was associated with loss of appetite (P=0.044) and chest pains (P=0.042). A weak association between diarrhea and the TT genotype was found (P=0.082). No association was observed between tuberculosis and the genotypes. Immunological characteristics, such as viral load and CD4 count, were not significantly associated with the genotypes. The results of the present study suggest that carriers of the TC genotype are more susceptible to chest pain, but that this genotype confers a protective effect against loss of appetite. The CC genotype was found to confer protection against chest pain but appeared to increase susceptibility to headaches. Further studies using larger samples are necessary to confirm these results.

Multiple hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfections in HIV-positive men who have sex with men: no influence of HCV genotype switch or interleukin-28B genotype on spontaneous clearance.

OBJECTIVES: The incidence of sexually transmitted hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfection is on the rise in HIV-infected men who have sex with men (MSM). Data on natural history of acute hepatitis C and possible factors associated with spontaneous clearance are limited. The aim of this study was to analyse the outcome of HCV reinfections in HIV-positive MSM. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was carried out on patients with more than one sexually acquired HCV infection who were diagnosed at four major German HIV and hepatitis care centres. Reinfection was defined by genotype or phylogenetic clade switch, detectable HCV RNA after a sustained virological response (SVR) or after spontaneous clearance (SC). RESULTS: In total, 48 HIV-positive MSM were identified with HCV reinfection, among them 11 with a third episode and one patient with four episodes. At the first episode, 43 and five patients had an SVR and SC, respectively. The second episode was accompanied by a genotype switch in 29 patients (60%). Whereas 30 and nine patients showed an SVR and SC, respectively, eight patients developed chronic hepatitis. Neither HCV genotype switch nor interleukin-28B genotype was associated with SC. However, SC rates at the second episode were higher for patients with SC at the first episode compared with patients without SC (60 vs. 14%, respectively; P = 0.03). Two patients with SC at the first episode were reinfected with the same genotype. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple reinfections in HIV-infected MSM do occur, with or without genotype switch, and with prior SC of previous episodes. In this large case series, except for SC at the first episode, no factor was of value in clinical decision-making for early therapeutic intervention in acute HCV reinfection.