Mapping the cattle industry in Brazil's most dynamic cattle-ranching state: Slaughterhouses in Mato Grosso, 1967-2016.

The state of Mato Grosso is Brazil's agribusiness powerhouse with a cattle herd of 30.2 million head in 2017. With land use patterns heavily influenced by beef production, which requires substantial land inputs, the state is a key target for environmental conservation. Yet the spatial and temporal dynamics of slaughterhouses in Mato Grosso remain largely unknown due to data limitations. Here, we provide a novel method to map slaughterhouse expansion and contraction. We analyzed the opening and closing of 133 plants between 1967 and 2016 in Mato Grosso and estimated the geographic locations and slaughter volumes. This was achieved by triangulating across multiple data sources including a registry of 21 million companies, government records of three million slaughter transactions (Portuguese acronym GTA), and high resolution satellite imagery. Our study is the first to include longitudinal information and both inspected (for food quality) and uninspected slaughterhouses. The results show that 72 plants operated in 2016 through 52 holding companies. By measuring geographic distances between active plants and pasture areas, we documented a 29% increase in the density of plants during 2000-2016, showing an expansion of the cattle slaughter infrastructure. We identified three periods of expansion: 1967-1995, with 15.1% of the plant openings; 1996-2003, with 24.6%; and 2004-2016, with 60.3%. While closings likely occurred throughout the period studied, no data were available prior to 2002. We estimated a minimum value for the volume of uninspected slaughter as 2-3% for 2013-2016. We conclude by discussing potential applications of the data, a deidentified version of which is made available through an online repository. The method developed here can be replicated for the whole country, which would increase our understanding of the dynamics of cattle slaughter and their impact on land use.

Entangled Histories: German Veterinary Medicine, c.1770-1900.

Medical historians have recently become interested in the veterinary past, investigating the development of animal health in countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. An appreciation of the German context, however, is still lacking - a gap in the knowledge that the present article seeks to fill. Providing a critical interpretation of the evolution of the veterinary profession, this investigation explains why veterinary and medical spheres intersected, drifted apart, then came back together; it also accounts for the stark differences in the position of veterinarians in Germany and Britain. Emphasis is placed on how diverse traditions, interests and conceptualisations of animal health shaped the German veterinary profession, conditioned its field of operation, influenced its choice of animals and diseases, and dictated the speed of reform. Due to a state-oriented model of professionalisation, veterinarians became more enthusiastic about public service than private practice, perceiving themselves to be alongside doctors and scientists in status, rather than next to animal healers or manual labourers. Building on their expertise in epizootics, veterinarians became involved in zoonoses, following outbreaks of trichinosis. They achieved a dominant position in meat hygiene by refashioning abattoirs into sites for the construction of veterinary knowledge. Later, bovine tuberculosis helped veterinarians cement this position, successfully showcasing their expertise and contribution to society by saving as much meat as possible from diseased livestock. Ultimately, this article shows how veterinarians were heavily 'entangled' with the fields of medicine, food, agriculture and the military.

The veterinary medicine industry in Britain in the twentieth century.

Economic historians have focused research effort on accounting for the growth and significance of Britain's pharmaceutical industry, but little effort has so far been directed at the veterinary medicine industry, which formed an important part of the wider sector. This article addresses that gap. Factors responsible for that sector's relative insignificance until the 1950s included a general tendency to slaughter rather than to treat sick animals, the absence of advanced medicines until the innovation of sulpha drugs and antibiotics, and difficult relations with the wider pharmaceutical industry. Thereafter output of veterinary medicines increased dramatically, arising from an exponential growth in the demand for intensively farmed poultry meat. Since the 1980s a decline in the use of drugs in agriculture has caused the industry to concentrate on the health needs of domestic animals rather than those of livestock.

Hippophagy in the UK: a failed dietary revolution.

This study explores the history of horseflesh consumption in modern Britain and France. It examines why horsemeat became relatively popular in France, but not Britain. These reasons include the active role of scientists, philanthropists, journalists and butchers. These figures did not actively promote horsemeat in Britain. These factors are as important as cultural and economic ones in explaining dietary transformation.

["In the Third Reich there must be no cruelty to animals anymore"--the development of the Reich's Animal Welfare Law from 1933]. / "Im Dritten Reich darf es keine Tierquälerei mehr geben"--Die Entstehung des Reichstierschutzgesetzes von 1933.

In the German Reich cruelty to animals was punishable over decades only under anthropozentrical points of view, animal experiments and slaughter without stunning were also settled insufficient. Then at the end of the republic of Weimar initiated by the national socialists slaughter without stunning was forbidden. After the takeover by the national socialists the ban was immediately extended to the hole country, the criminal punishment of cruelty to animals was increased and finally the Reichstierschutzgesetz was enacted--influenced by an ethical way of protection of animals. The societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals were aligned and offences against the law were punished with hard sentences. Protection of animals was particularly promoted by the national socialists on propagandistic purposes and served for the compensation of an increasing degeneration of social values.

[The former knackers yard in Zurich-Albisrieden: pathological findings in excavated animal bones]. / Wasenplatz am Letzigraben in Zürich-Albisrieden: pathologische Befunde am Tierknochenfundgut.

During archaeological excavations in the former knackers yard in Zurich-Albisrieden bones and joints of 8 horses and 1 mule were found and examinedfor pathological lesions. Degenerative changes (arthropathies, spondylosis and spondylarthrosis) as well as tooth irregularities were most often seen. One horse had a discospondylitis and spondylitis of C7 and Th1.

[Legislation of ritual slaughtering in Germany since 1933]. / Die rechtliche Regelung des rituellen Schlachtens in Deutschland ab 1933.

The article surveys the development of legislation to the slaughtering of warm-blooded animals in Germany since 1933. It examines the ritual slaughtering of the Jews (Schechita) on the one hand, and of the Moslems (Dabh) on the other hand. While 1933 the legislation was coined by the political situation, after 1949, legal setting and decisions reflected the changing sensibility to animals' protection. Before 1945, Schechita was the matter of legal dispute, more recently, the discussion has centred on the ritual slaughtering of the Moslems, with different arguments. The "Law on the Slaughtering of Animals" of 21-04-33 was part and parcel of the Third Reich's policy against Jews implicating a nation wide practical inhibition of Schechita by decreeing a general obligation of stunning before slaughtering. In 1945, the inhibition of Schechita became invalid after the occupation of the Reich by the Allied Forces. For the first time, the "First Amendment to the Animal Protection Law" of 1986 permitted ritual slaughtering by the way of exception as long as it was covered by the religious obligations. In 1995 the Federal Administrative Court judged that an inhibition of the ritual slaughtering by Moslems could be possible, because there are no religious obligations for Moslems. Nowadays, the ritual slaughtering of the Moslems is, de facto, forbidden, Schechita is performed in some cities for the needs of the residential Jewish population.

The United States perspective towards poultry slaughter.

Handling and immobilizing animals prior to slaughter can be viewed from three interrelated and sometimes competing perspectives: processing efficiency, worker safety, and humaneness. Efforts to pass laws requiring humane slaughter of livestock and poultry spanned over 60 yr. The first, The Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, Public Law 85-765, applicable only to livestock plants supplying meat to the Federal Government, passed because of the right mix of available technology, experience with stunning methods, and moral suasion. This proposed law was not supported by the Department of Agriculture because of concerns over anticipated problems with its administration. The 1958 law became effective in 1960 and did not include humane slaughter requirements for ritual handling. By 1977, 26 states had enacted their own humane slaughter laws to cover livestock packers not included under the federal statute. The Humane Methods of Slaughter Act of 1978 extended the 1958 requirements to all livestock slaughter facilities, both federal and state, including facilities in foreign countries exporting to the U.S. The Department of Agriculture supported the 1978 legislation. The poultry industry was not included in either law primarily because electrical stunning was being used for the majority of birds slaughtered. The technology to humanely slaughter poultry is widely used but not all poultry are stunned before slaughter. Experience with stunning technology has shown well-defined production efficiency. Expanded use of stunning methods and research to confirm effectiveness from a humane slaughter perspective is needed to assure consumers that the industry will voluntarily continue humane practices.

Memorial stones for the souls of animals killed for human welfare in Japan.

In Japan, at the old ports of the whaling industry, at all 365 slaughterhouses of the country, at some of the more than 90 wholesale markets of marine products, and at most of the about 170 testing facilities using laboratory animals, there are memorial stones for the souls of the animals killed for human welfare. Except at the whaling ports, where the memorials often can be dated back to the 17. century, all stones have been erected in the 20. century, most of them during the last 2 decades. The roots of this Japanese folk custom are probably in the prehistoric times of Shintoism. With the introduction of Buddhism in the 6. century, the killing of animals was considered sinful. Following the opening of the country in 1860, slaughterhouses were established.

[The former place of execution of the Lucerne herd in Emmen (1562-1798)(1562-1798) and slaughter yard belonging to it (1562-1866): pathologico-anatomic findings in excavated animal bones]. / Ehemalige Richtstätte des Standes Luzern in Emmen (1562-1798) und dazugehöriger Wasenplatz (1562-1866): Pathologisch-anatomische Befunde am Tierknochenfundgut.

During archaeological excavations of the former knackers yard in Emmen (Canton Lucerne) skeletons and individual bones of more than 700 animals were recovered. 110 bone samples had lesions and were examined macroscopically and radiologically, 100 were from horses, 9 from dogs and only one from cattle. According to morphological and etiopathogenetical criteria, lesions are presented in the following groups: tooth irregularities (10), degenerative changes in bones and joints due to overload and aging (80), trauma and infection (10), other lesions (10). Over 80% of pathological bone samples presented degenerative changes: spondylosis and spondylarthrosis, arthropathies (mainly spavin and ringbone in horses) and ossifying periostitis due to mechanical stress (Periostitis of phalanx I and periostitis of the dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone).

[Not Available]. / Wer Leben nimmt, kann auch Leben geben - Scharfrichter und Wasenmeister als Heilkundige in der Frühen Neuzeit.

In Early Modern Germany skinners and executioners belonged to the class of the so-called "dishonorable" professions. They formed a marginal group in the "honorable" society. The skinner's main function was to dispose of dead animals. The executioner was responsible for torture and the execution of a sentence. In the seventeenth century both officials spent much of their time practising medicine as regular members on the market of licensed medical practitioners. All truly licensed healers used techniques which were related to magic lore. In the eighteenth century doctors and qualified surgeons gained a monopoly and it became illegal for skinners and executioners to practise medicine. Those who did so were prosecuted. The Enlightenment declared their methods to be founded on superstitions.

[Dog slaughtering in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries with special consideration of the Munich area]. / Hundeschlachtungen in Deutschland im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Raums München.

In the 19th century professional dog slaughter and also the public sale of dog flesh arose. These slaughter and the sale was mainly practised by horse butchers. In Germany dogs had been mostly slaughtered in Sachsen, Schlesien, Anhalt and Bayern. From 1905 to 1940 the meat of 235.144 dogs was inspected. But the true number of slaughtered dogs was certainly larger. Yet in the fifties dogs were professionally slaughtered. After 1960 the slaughter dropped. Sporadically dog flesh was used as human food until 1985. The annual number of slaughtered dogs depended on economic factors like wages, prices of meat, availability of meat and dog tax. Dogs had been also slaughtered to produce dog fat for remedy. Slaughter of dogs has been already discussed in the 19th century. After 1930 it was called for abolishing the inspection order for dogs or for the prohibition of dog slaughter. After four bills of the years 1954, 1963 and 1985 the slaughter of dogs to produce human food was finally prohibited in 1986.