Toxic alcohol poisoning characteristics and treatments from 2000 to 2017 at a United States regional poison center.

BACKGROUND: Toxic alcohol exposures are an ongoing concern in the United States. In the US, few studies characterize the local epidemiology of toxic alcohols over time. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to examine the incidence of toxic alcohol ingestions and changes in management over time. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study evaluates toxic alcohol ingestion phone calls to a regional poison center in the United States covering four states. Data were queried for this poison center from the National Poison Data System (NPDS) using generic codes for each toxic alcohol. Inclusion criteria were ingestion of toxic alcohol, age ≥ 13 years, from January 1, 2000 to Dec 31, 2017. Exclusion criteria were unrelated effects coded in the medical outcome, duplicate data, or incomplete demographic data. RESULTS: Of 926 subjects (adults and teenagers), 71.5% were male, and the mean age was 34.5 years. Toxic alcohol ingestion was more common in individuals younger than 40 years, with a significant relationship between age and intentional abuse or misuse (p = 0.001). There was also a significant relationship between age and reason for ingestion, with younger patients more likely to be suicidal (p < 0.001). Ethyleneglycol was the most common toxic alcohol. There was no change in the incidence of toxic alcohol ingestions over the study period. The mortality rate was 1.7%, and 31.2%of patients were hospitalized in a critical care unit. Major effects and death were more common in younger patients (p < 0.001). There was a significant difference in medical outcomes based on the type of toxic alcohol(p = 0.03). Fomepizole was the most common treatment. A Poisson regression model found no change in fomepizole use during the study period (p = 0.1). Ethanol administration over the study period increased (p = 0.02), while hemodialysis decreased (p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Data obtained from a single regional United States poison center showed low mortality related to toxic alcohol ingestions. The most prevalent toxic alcohol was Ethylene glycol. In all cases, toxic alcohol ingestion was higher in the 20-29-year-old age group. Reasons for ingestion, in most cases, were suicidal. Fomepizole was the most common treatment, ethanol administration as an antidote is rising, and hemodialysis utilization is decreasing. Data may not be nationally representative.

Persistence of cerebellar ataxia during chronic ethanol exposure is associated with epigenetic up-regulation of Fmr1 gene expression in rat cerebellum.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol intoxication produces ataxia by affecting the cerebellum, which coordinates movements. Fragile X mental retardation (FMR) protein is a complex regulator of RNA and synaptic plasticity implicated in fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome, which features ataxia and increased Fmr1 mRNA expression resulting from epigenetic dysregulation of FMRP. We recently demonstrated that acute ethanol-induced ataxia is associated with increased cerebellar Fmr1 gene expression via histone modifications in rats, but it is unknown whether similar behavioral and molecular changes occur following chronic ethanol exposure. Here, we investigated the effects of chronic ethanol exposure on ataxia and epigenetically regulated changes in Fmr1 expression in the cerebellum. METHODS: Male adult Sprague-Dawley rats were trained on the accelerating rotarod and then fed with chronic ethanol or a control Lieber-DeCarli diet while undergoing periodic behavioral testing for ataxia during ethanol exposure and withdrawal. Cerebellar tissues were analyzed for expression of the Fmr1 gene and its targets using a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. The epigenetic regulation of Fmr1 was also investigated using a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. RESULTS: Ataxic behavior measured by the accelerating rotarod behavioral test developed during chronic ethanol treatment and persisted at both the 8-h and 24-h withdrawal time points compared to control diet-fed rats. In addition, chronic ethanol treatment resulted in up-regulated expression of Fmr1 mRNA and increased activating epigenetic marks H3K27 acetylation and H3K4 trimethylation at 2 sites within the Fmr1 promoter. Finally, measurement of the expression of relevant FMRP mRNA targets in the cerebellum showed that chronic ethanol up-regulated cAMP response element binding (CREB) Creb1, Psd95, Grm5, and Grin2b mRNA expression without altering Grin2a, Eaa1, or histone acetyltransferases CREB binding protein (Cbp) or p300 mRNA transcripts. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that epigenetic regulation of Fmr1 and subsequent FMRP regulation of target mRNA transcripts constitute neuroadaptations in the cerebellum that may underlie the persistence of ataxic behavior during chronic ethanol exposure and withdrawal.

Emergence agitation after intraoperative neurolytic celiac plexus block with alcohol: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Emergence agitation after general anesthesia may cause several undesirable events in the clinic during patient anesthesia recovery, and acute alcohol intoxication, while rare in surgery, is one of the risk factors. CASE PRESENTATION: A 66-year-old male patient was found to have pancreatic tail neoplasm upon computed tomography (CT) examination. The surgeon planned to resect the pancreatic tail under general anesthesia. However, the surgeon found extensive tumor metastasis in the abdominal cavity, and thus performed a neurolytic celiac plexus block (NCPB) with 40 ml 95% ethyl alcohol and finished the surgery in approximately 1 h. Twenty minutes later, the patient was extubated and developed significant emergence agitation in the postoperative care unit, characterized by restlessness, uncontrollable movements, confusion and disorientation. The patient was flushed and febrile with an alcohol smell in his breath and was unable to follow commands. Patient symptoms were suspected to be due to acute alcohol intoxication. Thus, the patient was given 40 mg of propofol intravenously. Following treatment, the patient recovered with less confusion and disorientation after approximately 10 min. After treatment with propofol twice more, he regained consciousness, was calm and cooperative, had no pain, and could obey instructions approximately 1 h and 40 min following the last treatment. Following this treatment, the patient was transferred to the inpatient ward and felt well. CONCLUSIONS: It is paramount to correctly identify the underlying cause of emergence agitation in order to successfully manage patient symptoms, since treatment plans vary between different etiological causes. Emergence agitation may be due to acute alcohol intoxication after intraoperative use of alcohol.

Identification of Dihydromyricetin and Metabolites in Serum and Brain Associated with Acute Anti-Ethanol Intoxicating Effects in Mice.

Dihydromyricetin is a natural bioactive flavonoid with unique GABAA receptor activity with a putative mechanism of action to reduce the intoxication effects of ethanol. Although dihydromyricetin's poor oral bioavailability limits clinical utility, the promise of this mechanism for the treatment of alcohol use disorder warrants further investigation into its specificity and druggable potential. These experiments investigated the bioavailability of dihydromyricetin in the brain and serum associated with acute anti-intoxicating effects in C57BL/6J mice. Dihydromyricetin (50 mg/kg IP) administered 0 or 15-min prior to ethanol (PO 5 g/kg) significantly reduced ethanol-induced loss of righting reflex. Total serum exposures (AUC0→24) of dihydromyricetin (PO 50 mg/kg) via oral (PO) administration were determined to be 2.5 µM × h (male) and 0.7 µM × h (female), while intraperitoneal (IP) administration led to 23.8-fold and 7.2- increases in AUC0→24 in male and female mice, respectively. Electrophysiology studies in α5ß3γ2 GABAA receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes suggest dihydromyricetin (10 µM) potentiates GABAergic activity (+43.2%), and the metabolite 4-O-methyl-dihydromyricetin (10 µM) negatively modulates GABAergic activity (-12.6%). Our results indicate that administration route and sex significantly impact DHM bioavailability in mice, which is limited by poor absorption and rapid clearance. This correlates with the observed short duration of DHM's anti-intoxicating properties and highlights the need for further investigation into mechanism of DHM's potential anti-intoxicating properties.

Individual and Contextual Factors Associated With Hazardous Drinking in Spain: Evidence From a National Population-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: Heavy drinking (HD) and binge drinking (BD) exhibit marked differences in their relationships with contextual-level factors imbedded in geographical areas of residence. The objective is to identify sociodemographic factors, both at the individual and at the contextual level, associated with these 2 main hazardous consumption patterns. METHODS: Cross-sectional study using data from the 2011 to 2012 National Health Survey in Spain. The sample included 21,007 individuals ≥15 years of age. HD was defined as an alcohol intake of ≥40 g/d in men and ≥24 g/d in women. BD was defined as the consumption in the previous month of ≥6 alcoholic drinks (men) or ≥5 drinks (women) within 4 to 6 hours. Individual-level variables included sociodemographic factors, urban/rural residence, smoking, and perceived social support. Contextual-level variables covered percentage of population with no schooling, unemployment rate, and hospitality industry-related economic activity, all at the census tract level. We analyzed data using multilevel logistic regression and calculated areas under the curve (AUC). RESULTS: Being male, smoking, high-income, and low perceived social support were associated with both hazardous drinking patterns. Younger individuals were at higher risk for BD but at lower risk for HD. BD was more common among rural than urban dwellers (odds ratios [OR] = 1.35; 95% CI: 1.05 to 1.72), whereas HD was less likely in participants residing in areas with high unemployment rates (OR = 0.62; 95% CI: 0.41 to 0.93). HD was more likely in census tracts with higher levels of hospitality industry activity (OR = 1.74; 95% CI: 1.20 to 2.54). The AUC increased substantially for both HD and BD when the census tract variable was entered in the respective models (reaching 89.5 and 93.3%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Except for age, both drinking patterns have similar associations with individual-level variables but disparate links to contextual-level indicators. In both cases, accounting for area of residence substantially increased the ability to discriminate between high-risk drinkers from nonhazardous alcohol consumers.

Signs of altered psychomotor capacity and use of alcohol and other drugs among nightclub patrons who drive in the city of São Paulo, Brazil.

Objectives: To investigate the occurrence of signs of altered psychomotor capacity (SAPC) associated with the violation of the dry law at the exits of nightclubs in the city of São Paulo, Brazil.Methods: Data from drivers participating in the Balada com Ciência project were used. Alcohol dosages were measured with breathalyzer test. The use of other drugs was obtained by interviewees' self-report. SAPC (speech, walking, glazed eyes, and alcohol odor) were verified by the interviewers at the time of the interview and categorized as "no sign" or "at least one sign". All measurements were evaluated at the exit of the nightclubs. The population description considered the sample weighting. Logistic regression analysis evaluated the association between the occurrence of SAPC, alcohol and other drugs use, controlling for sociodemographic variables.Results: At nightclubs, the SAPC among drivers are about 8 times higher when the breath alcohol concentration is above 0.05 mg/L if compared with those who did not drink alcohol, and about 30 times higher when the alcohol concentration was ≥ 0.34 mg/L in exhaled air. This finding is not generally verified in the literature for those who report the use of drugs inside nightclubs, which is interesting, since 20.4% of the interviewed population reported using drugs in the places surveyed.Conclusion: This study suggests the potential of using the Perham (2007) physical test for alcohol intoxication in sobriety checkpoints at the exit of nightclubs. However, the verification of these signs is not enough for the identification of drug use by drivers.

Association of Gray Matter and Personality Development With Increased Drunkenness Frequency During Adolescence.

Importance: Alcohol abuse correlates with gray matter development in adolescents, but the directionality of this association remains unknown. Objective: To investigate the directionality of the association between gray matter development and increase in frequency of drunkenness among adolescents. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study analyzed participants of IMAGEN, a multicenter brain imaging study of healthy adolescents in 8 European sites in Germany (Mannheim, Dresden, Berlin, and Hamburg), the United Kingdom (London and Nottingham), Ireland (Dublin), and France (Paris). Data from the second follow-up used in the present study were acquired from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2016, and these data were analyzed from January 1, 2016, to March 31, 2018. Analyses were controlled for sex, site, socioeconomic status, family history of alcohol dependency, puberty score, negative life events, personality, cognition, and polygenic risk scores. Personality and frequency of drunkenness were assessed at age 14 years (baseline), 16 years (first follow-up), and 19 years (second follow-up). Structural brain imaging scans were acquired at baseline and second follow-up time points. Main Outcomes and Measures: Increases in drunkenness frequency were measured by latent growth modeling, a voxelwise hierarchical linear model was used to observe gray matter volume, and tensor-based morphometry was used for gray matter development. The hypotheses were formulated before the data analyses. Results: A total of 726 adolescents (mean [SD] age at baseline, 14.4 [0.38] years; 418 [58%] female) were included. The increase in drunkenness frequency was associated with accelerated gray matter atrophy in the left posterior temporal cortex (peak: t1,710 = -5.8; familywise error (FWE)-corrected P = 7.2 × 10-5; cluster: 6297 voxels; P = 2.7 × 10-5), right posterior temporal cortex (cluster: 2070 voxels; FWE-corrected P = .01), and left prefrontal cortex (peak: t1,710 = -5.2; FWE-corrected P = 2 × 10-3; cluster: 10 624 voxels; P = 1.9 × 10-7). According to causal bayesian network analyses, 73% of the networks showed directionality from gray matter development to drunkenness increase as confirmed by accelerated gray matter atrophy in late bingers compared with sober controls (n = 20 vs 60; ß = 1.25; 95% CI, -2.15 to -0.46; t1,70 = 0.3; P = .004), the association of drunkenness increase with gray matter volume at age 14 years (ß = 0.23; 95% CI, 0.01-0.46; t1,584 = 2; P = .04), the association between gray matter atrophy and alcohol drinking units (ß = -0.0033; 95% CI, -6 × 10-3 to -5 × 10-4; t1,509 = -2.4; P = .02) and drunkenness frequency at age 23 years (ß = -0.16; 95% CI, -0.28 to -0.03; t1,533 = -2.5; P = .01), and the linear exposure-response curve stratified by gray matter atrophy and not by increase in frequency of drunkenness. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found that gray matter development and impulsivity were associated with increased frequency of drunkenness by sex. These results suggest that neurotoxicity-related gray matter atrophy should be interpreted with caution.

[Clinical pathomorphology and tanatogenesis of various forms of alcoholic intoxication]. / Klinicheskaia patomorfologiia i tanatogenez razlichnykh form alkogol'noi intoksikatsii.

The objective of the present study was to identify the clinical and pathomorphological changes in the internal organs for the elucidation of the cause of death associated with various forms of alcoholic intoxication (chronic alcoholic intoxication, poisoning with surrogate alcohols, etc.). The analysis of the clinical conditions resulting from alcohol abuse has demonstrated that the principal pathology underlying the fatal outcome is complemented by a variety of non-lethal somatic disorders aggravating the patients' condition and enhancing its severity. The clinicians are known to give more attention to the accompanying somatic complications than to the cause underlying the main pathology (alcoholism). Such attitude in the absence of the adequate treatment of the alcohol dependency is neither clinically efficient nor economically appropriate. Poisoning with surrogate alcohols is characterized by the pulmonary-cerebral variant of tanatogenesis in the combination with hypercoagulation and the erosive processes in the gastrointestinal tract whereas death from alcoholic intoxication is usually associated with heart tanatogenesis.

Sleeve gastrectomy surgery: when 2 alcoholic drinks are converted to 4.

BACKGROUND: While it is well established that Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) causes a rapid and heightened peak blood alcohol concentration (BAC), results from previous studies on the effects of sleeve gastrectomy (SG) on alcohol pharmacokinetics are conflicting. Data from 2 studies found SG did not affect BAC, whereas another study found SG caused a heightened peak BAC after alcohol ingestion. Moreover, these 3 studies estimated BAC from breathalyzers, which might not reliably estimate peak BAC. OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to evaluate (1) the effect of SG, relative to RYGB and a presurgery group, on alcohol pharmacokinetics and subjective effects, and (2) whether breathalyzers are reliable in this population. SETTING: Single-center prospective nonrandomized trial. METHODS: We performed alcohol challenge tests in 11 women who had SG surgery 1.9 ± .1 years ago (body mass index = 35.1 ± 6.6 kg/m2), 8 women who had RYGB surgery 2.2 ± .4 years ago (body mass index = 30.0 ± 5.2 kg/m2), and 9 women who were scheduled for bariatric surgery (body mass index = 44.1 ± 4.0 kg/m2). BACs were estimated from breath samples and measured by gas chromatography at various times after consuming approximately 2 standard drinks. RESULTS: BAC increased faster, peak BAC was approximately 2-fold higher, and feelings of drunkenness were heightened in both SG and RYGB groups relative to the presurgery group (P values<.001). BAC estimated from breath samples underestimated BAC by 27% (standard deviation = 13%) and missed peak BACs postsurgery. CONCLUSIONS: SG, similar to RYGB, causes marked alterations in the response to alcohol ingestion manifested by a faster and higher peak BAC. The breathalyzer is invalid to assess effects of gastric surgeries on pharmacokinetics of ingested alcohol.

Alcohol consumption during adolescence: A link between mitochondrial damage and ethanol brain intoxication.

Adolescence is a period of multiple changes where social behaviors influence interpersonal-relations. Adolescents live new experiences, including alcohol consumption which has become an increasing health problem. The age of onset for consumption has declined in the last decades, and additionally, the adolescents now uptake greater amounts of alcohol per occasion. Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for accidents, mental illnesses or other pathologies, as well as for the appearance of addictions, including alcoholism. An interesting topic to study is the damage that alcohol induces on the central nervous system (CNS) in the young population. The brain undergoes substantial modifications during adolescence, making brain cells more vulnerable to the ethanol toxicity. Over the last years, the brain mitochondria have emerged as a cell organelle which is particularly susceptible to alcohol. Mitochondria suffer severe alterations which can be exacerbated if the amount of alcohol or the exposure time is increased. In this review, we focus on the changes that the adolescent brain undergoes after drinking, placing particular emphasis on mitochondrial damage and their consequences against brain function. Finally, we propose the mitochondria as an important mediator in alcohol toxicity and a potential therapeutic target to reduce or treat brain conditions associated with excessive alcohol consumption.

Impairment of Neuroplasticity in the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex by Alcohol.

Previous studies have demonstrated that alcohol consumption impairs neuroplasticity in the motor cortex. However, it is unknown whether alcohol produces a similar impairment of neuroplasticity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a brain region that plays an important role in cognitive functioning. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effect of alcohol intoxication on neuroplasticity in the DLPFC. Paired associative stimulation (PAS) combined with electroencephalography (EEG) was used for the induction and measurement of associative LTP-like neuroplasticity in the DLPFC. Fifteen healthy subjects were administered PAS to the DLPFC following consumption of an alcohol (1.5 g/l of body water) or placebo beverage in a within-subject cross-over design. PAS induced neuroplasticity was indexed up to 60 minutes following PAS. Additionally, the effect of alcohol on PAS-induced potentiation of theta-gamma coupling (an index associated with learning and memory) was examined prior to and following PAS. Alcohol consumption resulted in a significant impairment of mean (t = 2.456, df = 13, p = 0.029) and maximum potentiation (t = -2.945, df = 13, p = 0.011) compared to the placebo beverage in the DLPFC and globally. Alcohol also suppressed the potentiation of theta-gamma coupling by PAS. Findings from the present study provide a potential neurophysiological mechanism for impairment of cognitive functioning by alcohol.

Prior social experience affects the behavioral and neural responses to acute alcohol in juvenile crayfish.

The effects of alcohol on society can be devastating, both as an immediate consequence of acute intoxication and as a powerful drug of abuse. However, the neurocellular mechanisms of alcohol intoxication are still elusive, partly because of the complex interactions between alcohol and nervous system function. We found that juvenile crayfish are behaviorally sensitive to acute alcohol exposure and progress through stages that are strikingly similar to those of most other intoxicated organisms. Most surprisingly, we found that the social history of the animals significantly modified the acute effects of alcohol. Crayfish taken from a rich social environment became intoxicated more rapidly than animals that were socially isolated before alcohol exposure. In addition, we found that the modulation of intoxicated behaviors by prior social experience was paralleled on the level of individual neurons. These results significantly improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the interplay between social experience, alcohol intoxication and nervous system function.

Identifying Future Drinkers: Behavioral Analysis of Monkeys Initiating Drinking to Intoxication is Predictive of Future Drinking Classification.

BACKGROUND: The Monkey Alcohol Tissue Research Resource (MATRR) is a repository and analytics platform for detailed data derived from well-documented nonhuman primate (NHP) alcohol self-administration studies. This macaque model has demonstrated categorical drinking norms reflective of human drinking populations, resulting in consumption pattern classifications of very heavy drinking (VHD), heavy drinking (HD), binge drinking (BD), and low drinking (LD) individuals. Here, we expand on previous findings that suggest ethanol drinking patterns during initial drinking to intoxication can reliably predict future drinking category assignment. METHODS: The classification strategy uses a machine-learning approach to examine an extensive set of daily drinking attributes during 90 sessions of induction across 7 cohorts of 5 to 8 monkeys for a total of 50 animals. A Random Forest classifier is employed to accurately predict categorical drinking after 12 months of self-administration. RESULTS: Predictive outcome accuracy is approximately 78% when classes are aggregated into 2 groups, "LD and BD" and "HD and VHD." A subsequent 2-step classification model distinguishes individual LD and BD categories with 90% accuracy and between HD and VHD categories with 95% accuracy. Average 4-category classification accuracy is 74%, and provides putative distinguishing behavioral characteristics between groupings. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that data derived from the induction phase of this ethanol self-administration protocol have significant predictive power for future ethanol consumption patterns. Importantly, numerous predictive factors are longitudinal, measuring the change of drinking patterns through 3 stages of induction. Factors during induction that predict future heavy drinkers include being younger at the time of first intoxication and developing a shorter latency to first ethanol drink. Overall, this analysis identifies predictive characteristics in future very heavy drinkers that optimize intoxication, such as having increasingly fewer bouts with more drinks. This analysis also identifies characteristic avoidance of intoxicating topographies in future low drinkers, such as increasing number of bouts and waiting longer before the first ethanol drink.

Developmental Hazards Among Young Alcohol Intoxicated Patients.

PURPOSE: The rising numbers of alcohol intoxicated adolescents (AIA) treated in emergency care units in several European countries have drawn attention to this target group for prevention. To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess a broad array of developmental hazards and their stability in AIA and to compare their distribution with representative samples (RS). METHODS: A multisite cohort study of AIA aged 13-17 years assessed, in the hospital (t0) and 6 months later (t1), (family) violence, cannabis and alcohol use, school problems, delinquency, homelessness, depression, and suicidality, using items from representative German surveys: Children and Adolescent Health Survey (KiGGS), Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and Communities That Care Youth Survey. We calculated the differences between AIA and RS and corresponding 95% confidence intervals. For AIA respondents who completed t0 and t1 information, we calculated prevalence/persistence/incidence of developmental hazards and corresponding 95% confidence interval. RESULTS: A total of 342 AIA participated at t0, 228 at t1 (67%). AIA had a significantly higher burden of concomitant risks regarding physical and emotional family abuse, (sexual) victimization, cannabis use, binge drinking, school expulsion, police arrest, gang membership, and being violent. Six months after hospitalization, emotional family abuse (34.1%), cannabis use (23.5%), depression (14.8%), and being violent (13.2%) were especially prevalent. CONCLUSIONS: Developmental hazards are up to six times more prevalent in AIA than in RS. Therefore, when assessing the risk profile of AIA, it is important to consider developmental hazards as well as detrimental alcohol use.

Natural Products for the Prevention and Treatment of Hangover and Alcohol Use Disorder.

Alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine and spirits are widely consumed around the world. However, alcohol and its metabolite acetaldehyde are toxic and harmful to human beings. Chronic alcohol use disorder or occasional binge drinking can cause a wide range of health problems, such as hangover, liver damage and cancer. Some natural products such as traditional herbs, fruits, and vegetables might be potential dietary supplements or medicinal products for the prevention and treatment of the problems caused by excessive alcohol consumption. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of effective natural products for the prevention and treatment of hangover and alcohol use disorder, and special emphasis is paid to the possible functional component(s) and related mechanism(s) of action.

When alcohol narrows the field of focal attention.

The aim of this study was to measure the extent to which alcohol intoxication restricts the scope of attention in the visual field. A group of intoxicated (n = 31; mean BAC ≈ .08%) and placebo control (n = 31; mean BAC ≈ .00%) participants were required to correctly identify visual probes while performing two verbal categorization tasks: one designed to widen the scope of visual attention on to each stimulus word, the other to narrow attention on to the central letter of each word. Response times to surprise probes interpolated between categorization trials were measured and these catch trials could appear in any of the stimulus word letter positions. As predicted by alcohol myopia theory (AMT), which assumes that the drug narrows focal attention, intoxicated participants made slower responses than the sober controls to probes displayed in non-central letter positions, although right-field probe reaction times (RTs) were slower than those for left-field targets. This response asymmetry and the wider theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.