Origin of Lee Quedae's Knowledge of Artistic Anatomy.

Art in medicine, especially in anatomy, is the creative expression of the structural form of life, specifically life as manifested in human anatomy. Artists and anatomists together produced images of the body that combined medical knowledge and an artistic vision. In Korea, the pioneer of artistic anatomy was Lee Quede (1913-1965). During the Korean War (1950-1953), in the Geoje prisoner of war camp, he produced anatomical drawings and notes about the human body to teach artistic anatomy to his fellow refugee Lee Ju-yeong. Human anatomy, physiognomic differences among races, and phrenology are explained in those drawings. His drawing notes relied upon his own memories of what he had learned at Teikoku Art School in Japan, where he obtained knowledge on artistic anatomy from Nishida Masaaki (1894-1961). Seventy-four drawings and their explanations were produced. The table of contents was ordered starting from body proportions, followed by the skeleton, the muscles, and the head. The essential forms, proportions and movement were included. In École Supérieur des Beaux Arts in France, Kume Geichiro (1866-1934) was a pupil of Mathias Duval (1844-1907) and Paul Richer (1849-1933). In Teikoku Art School, Kume lectured on art anatomy using the books written by Duval and Richer. Kume handed over his lectures to Nishida, and Lee Quede learned from Nishida. Thereafter, Lee Quede's anatomical knowledge was based on the French artistic anatomy of the 19th century, succeeded by Kume and Nishida. Lee Quede's drawing notes are valuable documents for assessing the influence of Japanese artistic anatomy on Korean artistic anatomy.

Constructing the rodent stereotaxic brain atlas: a survey.

The stereotaxic brain atlas is a fundamental reference tool commonly used in the field of neuroscience. Here we provide a brief history of brain atlas development and clarify three key conceptual elements of stereotaxic brain atlasing: brain image, atlas, and stereotaxis. We also refine four technical indices for evaluating the construction of atlases: the quality of staining and labeling, the granularity of delineation, spatial resolution, and the precision of spatial location and orientation. Additionally, we discuss state-of-the-art technologies and their trends in the fields of image acquisition, stereotaxic coordinate construction, image processing, anatomical structure recognition, and publishing: the procedures of brain atlas illustration. We believe that the use of single-cell resolution and micron-level location precision will become a future trend in the study of the stereotaxic brain atlas, which will greatly benefit the development of neuroscience.

Science, Anatomy, and Art: Revisiting Leonardo da Vinci, Pioneer of Modern Anatomy.

BACKGROUND: Leonardo da Vinci, the artist and scientist, was an archetype figure of the Renaissance era. He was an autodidactic polymath in natural sciences, engineering, and physical sciences, imbued with universality, prodigious inventive imagination, and curiosity to know and understand the world around him. Among his myriad activities, anatomy, physiology, and biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system and the underlying systems fully engaged him. Leonardo dissected dozens of human and animal corpses to study. His anatomical illustrations were precise, combining art and science with an impeccable integration of both. Multiple drawings, diagrams, sketches, and designs are found in his notes. Leonardo's style was intensely personal, unveiling his thoughts, passions, and emotions. We analyzed significant biographic aspects of Leonardo's life, remarking on his scientific and life conceptions and their manifestation in his anatomical designs. The contribution of preceding anatomists is reported as a source of his inspiration as well as motivation to successors. Leonardo da Vinci left no publications, but rather an extensive collection of personal notebooks. Leonardo's contribution to modern anatomy was enormous and he is considered by the scientific and medical community as the father of the modern anatomy.

From Ancient Texts to Digital Imagery: A Brief History on the Evolution of Anatomic Illustrations.

In a time when social isolation heavily relies on the use of digital representation, photography, and e-books, it is easy to take for granted the impact imagery has on our society and the pedagogical purposes of illustration, particularly in the teaching of surgery. Illustrations after all are the basis of all anatomical atlases and are quintessential tools that allow for an expedient and thorough understanding of concepts underlying the fabric of the human body. Yet, surgery has not always been taught with an atlas. Illustrations, much like surgery, have seen an incredible transformative process spanning across the ages to achieve their status in modern medicine. Through this brief review, we will not only glean an understanding of the evolution of anatomical illustrations but also the social context in which surgery has also evolved throughout history.

Evolution of Human Brain Atlases in Terms of Content, Applications, Functionality, and Availability.

Human brain atlases have been evolving tremendously, propelled recently by brain big projects, and driven by sophisticated imaging techniques, advanced brain mapping methods, vast data, analytical strategies, and powerful computing. We overview here this evolution in four categories: content, applications, functionality, and availability, in contrast to other works limited mostly to content. Four atlas generations are distinguished: early cortical maps, print stereotactic atlases, early digital atlases, and advanced brain atlas platforms, and 5 avenues in electronic atlases spanning the last two generations. Content-wise, new electronic atlases are categorized into eight groups considering their scope, parcellation, modality, plurality, scale, ethnicity, abnormality, and a mixture of them. Atlas content developments in these groups are heading in 23 various directions. Application-wise, we overview atlases in neuroeducation, research, and clinics, including stereotactic and functional neurosurgery, neuroradiology, neurology, and stroke. Functionality-wise, tools and functionalities are addressed for atlas creation, navigation, individualization, enabling operations, and application-specific. Availability is discussed in media and platforms, ranging from mobile solutions to leading-edge supercomputers, with three accessibility levels. The major application-wise shift has been from research to clinical practice, particularly in stereotactic and functional neurosurgery, although clinical applications are still lagging behind the atlas content progress. Atlas functionality also has been relatively neglected until recently, as the management of brain data explosion requires powerful tools. We suggest that the future human brain atlas-related research and development activities shall be founded on and benefit from a standard framework containing the core virtual brain model cum the brain atlas platform general architecture.

The science of art: Leonardo Da Vinci and facial plastic surgery.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Leonardo Da Vinci possessed one of humanity's greatest minds, known for exploring the boundaries of art and science. The discipline of facial plastic surgery also relies on art and science for its advancement. This review focuses on key elements of Leonardo Da Vinci's work, and how they relate to concepts within facial plastic surgery. RECENT FINDINGS: Leonardo Da Vinci was a self-taught creative genius. Common themes that permeated his art were those of proportion, perspective, light and shadow, anatomy, and science. These principles are reflected in key aspects of facial plastic surgery, such as facial analysis, human gaze, facial subunits, surgery of the craniofacial skeleton, and evidence-based medicine. SUMMARY: Leonardo Da Vinci's approach to scientific inquiry and artistic beauty strikes a balance from which facial plastic surgeons have much to learn. In depth study of how Leonardo Da Vinci viewed the world furthers the analytical and creative sides of a facial plastic surgeon as well as informs their personal development.

Anatomy theaters in the history and teaching of surgery.

The study of anatomy has played a large part in the progress of scientific observation throughout the centuries and was pivotal in elevating anatomy from the magical thinking of the Hippocrates era and freeing it from subservience to medicine which was all-powerful in the past. Anatomy theaters appeared in Northern Italy in the 14th century and developed in Western Europe from the early 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century. Anatomy theaters lived their golden age in France during the 18th century when the Royal Academy of Surgery (Académieroyaledechirurgie) was created in 1743. These theaters were open to the public, and therefore offered the double vocation of teaching and public entertainment: they were used to teach anatomy and surgery to students and surgeons and offered distraction for the well-informed public that was fascinated by death, ever-present and familiar to all. Anatomical dissection accomplished a double ritual: the "profane" ritual of valorization of scientific knowledge and the "sacred" ritual, where mankind, obsessed with death, respected the human body considered as a divine image. Anatomy theaters declined as they became overshadowed by progress in anatomical teaching using well-illustrated works in well-equipped medical schools while exhibition of anatomic oddities for public amusement was relegated to fairs and circus sideshows. Nonetheless they opened the way to modern anatomo-clinical methods and surgery.

Medical Illustration in the Era of Cardiac Surgery.

This article reviews the collaboration between clinician and illustrator throughout the ages while highlighting the era of cardiac surgery. Historical notes are based on Professor Sanjib Kumar Ghosh's extensive review, literature searches, and the archives of the Johns Hopkins University Department of Art as related to Medicine in Baltimore. Personal communications were explored with medical illustrators and medical practitioners, many of whom are colleagues and trainees, to further chronicle the history of medical illustration and education in the era of cardiac surgery. Medical illustrators use their talents and expressive ideas to demonstrate procedures and give them life. These methods are (1) hovering technique; (2) hidden anatomy, ghosted views, or transparency; (3) centrally focused perspective; (4) action techniques to give life to the procedure; (5) use of insets to highlight one part of the drawing; (6) human proportionality using hands or known objects to show size; and (7) step-by-step educational process to depict the stages of a procedure. Vivid examples showing these techniques are demonstrated. The result of this observational analysis underscores the importance of the collaboration between clinician and illustrator to accurately describe intricate pathoanatomy, three-dimensional interrelated anatomic detail, and complex operations. While there are few data to measure the impact of the atlas on medical education, it is an undeniable assertion that anatomical and surgical illustrations have helped to educate and train the modern-day surgeon, cardiologist, and related health-care professionals.

"The Vienna Protocol: Medicine's confrontation with continuing legacies of its Nazi past,".

This letter to the editor describes a symposium on The Vienna Protocol and the legacy of the Pernkopf atlas, which took place as part of the annual Neuberger Holocaust Education week, in Toronto, Canada, on 10. November 2019.

Photograph as Skin, Skin as Wax: Indexicality and the Visualisation of Syphilis in Fin-de-Siècle France The William Bynum Prize Essay.

In early twentieth-century France, syphilis and its controversial status as a hereditary disease reigned as a chief concern for physicians and public health officials. As syphilis primarily presented visually on the surface of the skin, its study fell within the realms of both dermatologists and venereologists, who relied heavily on visual evidence in their detection, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease. Thus, in educational textbooks, atlases, and medical models, accurately reproducing the visible signposts of syphilis - the colour, texture, and patterns of primary chancres or secondary rashes - was of preeminent importance. Photography, with its potential claims to mechanical objectivity, would seem to provide the logical tool for such representations. Yet photography's relationship to syphilographie warrants further unpacking. Despite the rise of a desire for mechanical objectivity charted in the late nineteenth century, artist-produced, three-dimensional, wax-cast moulages coexisted with photographs as significant educational tools for dermatologists; at times, these models were further mediated through photographic reproduction in texts. Additionally, the rise of phototherapy complicated this relationship by fostering the clinical equation of the light-sensitive photographic plate with the patient's skin, which became the photographic record of disease and successful treatment. This paper explores these complexities to delineate a more nuanced understanding of objectivity vis-à-vis photography and syphilis. Rather than a desire to produce an unbiased image, fin-de-siècle dermatologists marshalled the photographic to exploit the verbal and visual rhetoric of objectivity, authority, and persuasion inextricably linked to culturally constructed understandings of the photograph. This rhetoric was often couched in the Peircean concept of indexicality, which physicians formulated through the language of witness, testimony, and direct connection.

Pernkopf's atlas: Should unethically obtained life-saving data be discarded?

Dr Pernkopf's Topographische anatomie des menschen (Topographical anatomy of man), in four volumes, was originally published in German. It had taken the author and his colleagues over twenty years to produce it, the first volume being published in 1937. It was translated into English in 1964. The atlas was received with uniform acclaim in Europe and America and praised for its accuracy and the quality of its illustrations. A recent study compared its utility with that of Dr Frank Netter's Atlas of human anatomy, first published in 1989, with its 7th edition out in 2018. "The respondents (nerve surgeons) found Pernkopf 's atlas having both greater anatomical detail (range 79%-91%) and greater utility for surgery (range 66%- 82%) when compared with Netter's (P < .001) in all plate comparisons." (1) Internationally renowned and respected neurosurgeon, Dr M Gazi Yasargil - not given to handing out praise lightly - said in 2004 of this atlas, "Pernkopf's work, in particular … Vol. 4 (800 pages, 218 figures) is of fantastic quality and is appreciated worldwide." (2) Surgeons continue to use Dr. Pernkopf's atlas to plan their operations (3). A recent example is its use in the treatment of a 13-year-old Israeli schoolboy (4). This essay discusses whether it is rational to refuse to use data and publications that are accurate and likely to help in treating patients. Since such information can save lives, should we spurn it because it was based on information obtained unethically?

Charcot and Cholesterin.

We offer here an observation written in 1866 by Jean-Martin Charcot, accompanied by drawings made during the autopsy of a patient who died of "cerebral softening." Focusing mainly on French medical progress at the time, our survey of the state of knowledge of cerebrovascular pathology indicates that Charcot completely explained the pathophysiology of cerebral infarction, describing the ulceration of an atheromatous plaque at the intima of an artery, on which a clot aggregates, blocks the vessel, or releases embolus downstream, causing cerebral ischemia and parenchymal lesions. Using the term "cholestérine" (cholesterin), the name of cholesterol at the time, he identified the biological nature of atheromatous plaques, and made detailed drawings. This observation, included in the famous thesis of Ivan Poumeau, indicates that Charcot did not neglect cerebrovascular pathology, ischemic in this case, but also pathology caused by hemorrhaging, as in the thesis of Charles Bouchard. This interest, which we see clearly during his first decade at Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, gradually turned toward other neurological pathologies that ensured his fame as a founder of neurology more enduringly and overshadowed the conceptual advances he made in the vascular domain.

"Tesrih-ül Ebdan ve Tercümâni Kibale-i Feylesûfan": the first illustrated anatomy handwritten textbook in Ottoman-Turkish medicine.

INTRODUCTION: Semseddîn-i Itâkî is a key Turkish scientist in the field of anatomy. His book entitled Tesrih-ül Ebdan ve Tercümâni Kibale-i Feylesûfan which was written in the seventeenth century is accepted as the first illustrated anatomy handwritten textbook in Turkish language. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this article, it was examined an original copy of Tesrih-ül Ebdan ve Tercümâni Kibale-i Feylesûfan, which is available at the Süleymaniye Library in Istanbul, Turkey, as well as the transliteration of this book from old Turkish (Ottoman-Turkish) alphabet to contemporary Turkish alphabet by Esin Kâhya. In this book, the anatomical drawings and their descriptions were evaluated. RESULTS: In this ancient handwriting, Itâkî begins with thanking God and then describes the general structure of the organs, bones, nerves, muscles and vessels, supporting with various illustrations. These illustrations are mainly focused on cranial bones, muscles, cranial nerves, spinal nerves, stomach, intestines, urogenital system, bladder, trachea, larynx and bronchi. CONCLUSION: While some of these illustrations are similar to the illustrations of the earlier authors such as Ahmed Ibn Mansur, Andreas Vesalius and Juan Valverde de Amusco, others are peculiar to this book. This book is highly significant for it's being the first Turkish book in the field of anatomy in Ottoman-Turkish medicine and the text's being supplemented by illustrations. This book is also a fundamental source for translation of anatomical terms into Turkish. Our knowledge of anatomy continues to improve thanks to the contributions of leading scientists such as Itâkî and, therefore, he deserves praise.

Comparative Studies of Two Major Sets of Tibetan Medical Paintings: A Historical Perspective.

Tibetan medicine, one of the time-honored medical systems in the world, has increasingly been receiving attention the world over. Tibetan medical paintings (TMP, tib. Sman thang) has become one of the focal points in the studies of this medical system. To date, there are many atlases and publications on TMP, which are principally based on the two major sets of TMP series existing today in the world, the Lhasa set and the Buryat set. It has been found that the Buryat set is based on the Lhasa set, which was brought in late 19th to the first half of the 20th century from Tibet to Buryatia, Russia. A careful investigation on the basic structure of the two sets reveals that there are many differences between the two sets of paintings, including the total number of the paintings involved, of which some are missing in one set, the details of the captions of some of the paintings, the existence of the 80th painting and its supervisor, and the overall order of the entire set, etc. The details of the differences are elaborated and discussed, and the prospective of developing the research to arrive at a standard and perfect TMP set in the future is also analyzed and anticipated.