Molecular characterization of alpha-thalassemia in the Mexican population.

BACKGROUND: alpha-Thalassemia (alpha-Thal) has been poorly characterized at the molecular level in Mexico. METHODS: 106 consecutive individuals identified in Laboratorios Clínicos de Puebla, with either hypochromia (MCH < 24 pg) and/or microcytosis (MCV < 75 fl in women or < 80 fl in man), without iron deficiency, with or without anemia were investigated in this study, along a 16 month-period. alpha and beta-Thal were looked for, the former were characterized at the molecular level. RESULTS: Out of the 106 consecutive cases with hypochromia and/or microcytosis and normal levels of protoporphyrin zinc complex, 48 cases (45.3%) had thalassemia (37 cases of betaThal and 11 cases of alphaThal), whereas in 58 cases (54.7%) a definite diagnosis could not be established. Of the alpha-Thal cases, 8 were heterozygous and two were homozygous for the -alpha3.7 deletion, whereas one case was heterozygous for the alpha2Hph allele. CONCLUSIONS: Only few of the alpha-Thal alleles tested were found, thus the alpha-thalassemic mutations, present in the studied population, seem to be rather heterogeneous.

Molecular characterization of alpha-thalassemia in the Mexican population / Caracterización molecular de talasemia alfa en una población mexicana

Background. α-Thalassemia (α-Thal) has been poorly characterized at the molecular level in Mexico. Methods. 106 consecutive individuals identified in Laboratorios Clínicos de Puebla, with either hypochromia (MCH < 24 pg) and/or microcytosis (MCV < 75 fl in women or < 80 fl in man), without iron deficiency, with or without anemia were investigated in this study, along a 16 month-period, α and β-Thal were looked for, the former were characterized at the molecular level. Results. Out of the 106 consecutive cases with hypochromia and/or microcytosis and normal levels of protoporphyrin zinc complex, 48 cases (45.3%) had thalassemia (37 cases of β-Thal and 11 cases of α-Thal), whereas in 58 cases (54.7%) a definite diagnosis could not be established. Of the α-Thal cases, 8 were heterozygous and two were homozygous for the -α3.7 deletion, whereas one case was heterozygous for the α2Hph allele. Conclusions. Only few of the α-Thal alleles tested were found, thus the α-thalassemic mutations, present in the studied population, seem to be rather heterogeneous.

Antecedentes. En México, la α-talasemia (α-Thal) ha sido pobremente caracterizada a nivel molecular. Mátodos. Se estudiaron 106 individuos consecutivos identificados en los Laboratorios Clínicos de Puebla, con hipocromia (CMH < 24 pg) y lo microcitosis (VCM < 75 fl en mujeres o 80 fl en hombres), sin deficiencia de hierro, con o sin anemia, durante un periodo de 16 meses. Se investigaron α y β-Thal; las primeras fueron caracterizadas a nivel molecular. Resultados. De los 106 casos consecutivos estudiados con hipocromia y/o microcitosis, y niveles normales del complejo de protoporfirina-cinc, 48 casos (45.3%) tenían talasemias (37 de ellos β-Thal y 11 α-Thal), mientras que en 58 casos (54.7%) no pudo establecerse un diagnóstico definitivo. De las talasemias α, ocho casos eran heterocigotos y dos homocigotos para la deleción -α3.7, mientras que sólo un caso resultó heterocigoto para el alelo α2Hph. Conclusiones. De los alelos α-Thal estudiados sólo se encontraron algunos, de lo que se infiere que en la población estudiada esas mutaciones parecen ser bastante heterogáneas.

Health of children adopted from Guatemala: comparison of orphanage and foster care.

OBJECTIVE: Since 1986, American parents have adopted >17300 children from Guatemala. This study assessed the health, growth, and developmental status of 103 Guatemalan adopted children (48 girls; 55 boys) after arrival in the United States. Physical evidence suggestive of prenatal alcohol exposure and adequacy of vaccinations administered were also reviewed. METHODS: Retrospective chart review was conducted of 103 children who were evaluated after arrival in the United States in an international adoption specialty clinic, and a case-matched study was conducted of a subgroup of 50 children who resided in either an orphanage or foster care before adoption. Mean age at arrival was 16 +/- 19 months. Before adoption, 25 children resided in orphanages, 56 resided in foster care, and 22 resided in mixed-care settings. The 25 children who had resided in orphanages before adoption were matched for age at arrival, interval from arrival to clinic visit, and gender with a child adopted from foster care. Health and developmental status of these matched pairs were compared, allowing the first direct comparison of children raised in orphanages or foster care before adoption. RESULTS: Mild growth delays were frequent among the children. Mean z scores for weight, height, and head circumference were, respectively, -1.00, -1.04, and -1.08. Children from foster care had significantly better z scores for height, weight, and head circumference than those from orphanage or mixed care. Among children who were younger than 2 years at arrival, growth measurements correlated inversely with age at arrival. Infectious diseases included intestinal parasites (8%) and latent tuberculosis infection (7%). Other medical conditions included anemia (30%), elevated lead levels (3%), and (using strict criteria) phenotypic facial features suggestive of prenatal alcohol exposure (28%). Adequacy of vaccine records from Guatemala was assessed: 28% met American Academy of Pediatrics standards for vaccine administration. Unsuspected significant medical diagnoses, including congenital anomalies and ocular, neurologic, and orthopedic problems, were found in 14%. Most children were doing well developmentally (80-92% of expected performance), but 14% had global developmental delays. Cognition, expressive and receptive language, and activities of daily living skills correlated inversely with age at arrival for children who were younger than 2 years at adoption. Among the 50 matched children, those who resided in foster care before adoption had better measurements for height, weight, and head circumference at arrival to the United States. Moreover, those who resided in foster care scored significantly better for cognitive skills than those who had previously resided in orphanages (96.3% of age-expected compared with 88.3% of age-expected); other skills did not differ between the 2 groups. No differences were found between the 2 groups of children related to prevalence of medical diagnoses or phenotypic evidence suggesting prenatal alcohol exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Guatemalan adoptees display similar overall patterns of growth and developmental delays as seen in other groups of internationally adopted children, although not as severe. Younger children had better growth and development (cognition, language, and activities of daily living skills) than older children, regardless of location of residence before adoption. Among children who were matched for age, gender, and interval from adoption to evaluation, those who had resided in foster care had better growth and cognitive scores than children who had resided in orphanages before adoption. These findings support the need for timely adoptive placement of young infants and support the placement of children in attentive foster care rather than orphanages when feasible.

Behavioral and developmental effects of preventing iron-deficiency anemia in healthy full-term infants.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the behavioral and developmental effects of preventing iron-deficiency anemia in infancy. METHODS: Healthy full-term Chilean infants who were free of iron-deficiency anemia at 6 months were assigned to high- or low-iron groups or to high- or no-added-iron groups. Behavioral/developmental outcomes at 12 months of age included overall mental and motor test scores and specific measures of motor functioning, cognitive processing, and behavior. There were no differences between high- and low-iron groups in the prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia or behavioral/developmental outcome, and they were combined to form an iron-supplemented group (n = 1123) for comparison with the no-added-iron group (n = 534). RESULTS: At 12 months, iron-deficiency anemia was present in 3.1% and 22.6% of the supplemented and unsupplemented groups, respectively. The groups differed in specific behavioral/developmental outcomes but not on global test scores. Infants who did not receive supplemental iron processed information slower. They were less likely to show positive affect, interact socially, or check their caregivers' reactions. A smaller proportion of them resisted giving up toys and test materials, and more could not be soothed by words or objects when upset. They crawled somewhat later and were more likely to be tremulous. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that unsupplemented infants responded less positively to the physical and social environment. The observed differences seem to be congruent with current understanding of the effects of iron deficiency on the developing brain. The study shows that healthy full-term infants may receive developmental and behavioral benefits from iron supplementation in the first year of life.

The quantitative assessment of body iron.

Current initiatives to reduce the high prevalence of nutritional iron deficiency have highlighted the need for reliable epidemiologic methods to assess iron status. The present report describes a method for estimating body iron based on the ratio of the serum transferrin receptor to serum ferritin. Analysis showed a single normal distribution of body iron stores in US men aged 20 to 65 years (mean +/- 1 SD, 9.82 +/- 2.82 mg/kg). A single normal distribution was also observed in pregnant Jamaican women (mean +/- 1 SD, 0.09 +/- 4.48 mg/kg). Distribution analysis in US women aged 20 to 45 years indicated 2 populations; 93% of women had body iron stores averaging 5.5 +/- 3.35 mg/kg (mean +/- 1 SD), whereas the remaining 7% of women had a mean tissue iron deficit of 3.87 +/- 3.23 mg/kg. Calculations of body iron in trials of iron supplementation in Jamaica and iron fortification in Vietnam demonstrated that the method can be used to calculate absorption of the added iron. Quantitative estimates of body iron greatly enhance the evaluation of iron status and the sensitivity of iron intervention trials in populations in which inflammation is uncommon or has been excluded by laboratory screening. The method is useful clinically for monitoring iron status in those who are highly susceptible to iron deficiency.

Heterozygous beta-thalassemia: not infrequent in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of beta-thalassemia in Mexico is not known in detail. METHODS: Data of studies investigating abnormal hemoglobins between September 1987 and November 2000 were analyzed; in addition, data of red-blood-cell indices and clinical features were analyzed in patients identified as carriers of beta-thalassemia. RESULTS: In 1,639 prospective studies looking for abnormal hemoglobins, 429 disclosed some abnormality; of these, 319 cases displayed abnormally high levels of hemoglobin A2, thus consistent with the diagnosis of beta-thalassemia. This hemoglobin abnormality represented 74.2% of all abnormalities, both quantitative and qualitative, of the molecule of hemoglobin. There were 317 heterozygotes and only two homozygotes. We have previously shown that the most frequent cause of anemia as the iatrotropic condition in Mexican mestizos is iron deficiency. We found that iron deficiency is 11.5 times more frequent than beta-thalassemia and that the latter is 1.3 times more frequent than macrocytic/megaloblastic anemia. CONCLUSIONS: beta-thalassemia should not be considered as infrequent in Mexico, and individuals with red blood cell microcytosis and/or hypochromia with or without anemia should be screened for thalassemia.

Nutrition of Honduran mothers/caretakers.

In 1996, the Honduran Ministry of Health conducted a national micronutrient survey of children 12-71 months old, which also included an assessment of the nutrition status of their mothers/caretakers. The 1,126 mothers/caretakers who participated in the survey tended to be short and plump. About 15% of them were at obstetric risk by virtue of their short stature and/or low body weight. About 9% had chronic energy deficiency (CED), but 27% were at least 20% overweight. CED was associated with socioeconomic indicators of poverty. Risk factors for being at least 20% overweight included being over 30 years old, not breast-feeding, having attended no higher than grade 4, 5, or 6 of primary school, coming from a wealthier household, and living in San Pedro Sula or medium-sized cities. Among the women surveyed, 26% of nonpregnant and 32% of pregnant mothers/caretakers were anemic. The likely principal cause of anemia was the low intake of bioavailable iron from food and, in some cases, excessive iron loss associated with intestinal parasites, especially hookworm. Only 50% of the mothers/caretakers participating in this study had received iron during their last pregnancy, and just 13% had received postpartum vitamin A. The results highlight the need to develop and implement an effective program to control iron deficiency anemia in women of reproductive age, including by fortifying such widely consumed foods as processed wheat and maize flour and by routinely administering iron supplements to high-risk groups. Postpartum vitamin A supplementation should be encouraged to protect both the mother and newborn infant against vitamin A deficiency.

Prevalência de anemia ferropriva e marcadores de risco associados em crianças entre 12 e 18 meses de idade atendidas nos Ambulatórios do Instituto de Puericultura e Pediatria Martagäo Gesteira / Prevalence of iron deficiency anemia and risk indicators in children from 12 to 18 months attended at the outpatient clinic of Instituto de Puericultura e Pediatria Martagäo Gesteira

Objetivo: Estudar a prevalência de anemia ferropriva em crianças entre 12 a 18 meses nos ambulatórios do IPPMG e os marcadores de risco a ela associados, no intuito de avaliar e monitorizar o serviço. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo de corte transversal. Foram incluídas 288 crianças atendidas no ambulatório do IPPMG, de janeiro a dezembro de 1993. A anemia foi diagnosticada através da dosagem de hemoglobina sérica. Os marcadores de risco estudados foram: realizaçäo de pré-natal, peso ao nascer, acompanhamento pediátrico, características sócio-econômicas, padräo de amamentaçäo, estado nutricional e prescriçäo de ferro. Os dados foram computados e analisados pelos programas EPI-INFO e EGRET...

Prevalence of anemia, iron, folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency in two Bari Indian communities from western Venezuela.

The hematological status of 406 Bari indians from two communities was studied. One hundred and seventy nine individuals were from Campo Rosario a village located in a low arid plain south to the Perijá mountain range and 287 were from Saimadoyi, a fertile valley in the heart of the mountain. Anemia was found in 54% and 31% of the people from Campo Rosario and Saimadoyi respectively. Low serum iron was present in 28% of the population in both communities while low serum ferritin levels were encountered in 20% of the population from Campo Rosario and 5% of the people from Saimadoyi. A high prevalence of serum folate and vitamin B12 deficiency (91% and 64% respectively) was found in Campo Rosario, in contrast only 5% of the population from Saimadoyi had low folate and none were vitamin B12 deficient. While there was a positive significant correlation between hemoglobin and serum iron concentrations (r = 0.517, p < 0.001), no significative correlation was found between the other parameters studied. The high prevalence of anemia and nutrient deficiency among the Bari indians, can be attributed to inadequate diets and the varied diseases encountered in the population.

Anemia en mujeres de edad reproductiva: resultados de una encuesta probabilística nacional / Anemia in women of reproductive age: results from a representative national nutrition survey

Entre las deficiencias nutricias más extendidas en el mundo se encuentra la de hierro, que se manifiesta como anemia. A pesar de que se han documentado diversas alteraciones fisiológicas relacionadas con la anemia ferropriva, tales como compromiso de la función cardiovascular, limitación en la productividad en el trabajo, mayor incidencia de peso bajo al nacer, de partos prematuros y de mortalidad materna, en México no se contaba con un diagnóstico preciso de la magnitud de esta diferencia en mujeres de edad reproductiva. En este trabajo se presenta un análisis descriptivo de la prevalencia de anemia en este grupo, basado en la Encuesta Nacional de Nutrición levantada por la Secretaría de Salud en 1988, que recogió datos representativos a nivel regional en las zonas Norte, Centro, Sur y Distrito Federal del país. La prevalencia de anemia a nivel nacional fue mayor en las mujeres embarazadas (18.17 por ciento) que en las no embarazadas (15.38 por ciento). En mujeres indígenas la prevalencia fue de 24.02 por ciento, en tanto que en las no indígenas fue de 14.67 por ciento. En zonas urbanas la prevalencia fue de 15.54 por ciento y en las rurales de 13.56 por ciento. Los valores promedio de hemoglobina fueron más bajos en mujeres embarazadas (12.5 ñ 1.6 desviación estándar g/dL) que en no embarazadas (13.7 ñ 1.6 g/dL). En forma consistente, las regiones Norte y Sur se vieron más afectadas que la Centro y el D.F. Los datos presentados señalan la magnitud del problema de anemia en las mujeres de edad reproductiva en México. Las posibles consecuencias de esta forma de desnutrición justifican la realización de intervenciones para prevenir y corregir esta deficiencia

Iron deficiency is one of the most prevalent forms of malnutrition which is clinically known as anemia. Functional consequences of anemia include impairment of cardiovascular performance, limitation in productivity, higher incidence of low birth weight and premature delivery, and increased maternal mortality. This paper presents a descriptive analysis of anemia in women of reproductive age in Mexico. Data were collected by the Ministry of Health through a National Nutrition Survey in 1988, which draw a representative sample from four regions: North, Center, South and Federal District. Anemia was more prevalent in pregnant (18.17%) than in non-pregnant women (15.38%). Those women living in predominantly indigenous communities had higher prevalence of anemia (24.02%) than non-indigenous women (14.67%). Anemia was more prevalent in urban areas (15.54%) than in rural (13.56%). Mean ± standard deviation values for hemoglobin were lower in pregnant women (12.5 ± 1.6 g/dL) than in non-pregnant ones (13.7 ± 1.6 g/dL). Consistently, the Northern and Southern regions were worse off than the Center and the Federal District. These data indicate that anemia is a public health problem in Mexico. The functional consequences of this deficiency justify interventions to treat and prevent it.

Deficiencia de vitaminas y minerales en México; una revisión crítica del estado de la información: I. Deficiencia de minerales / Vitamins and minerals deficiency; a state of the art: I. Mineral deficiency

Se analizaron 39 estudios publicados sobre la deficiencia de minerales en México desde 1950 a la fecha, y se concluyó que: a) la de hierro es la deficiencia de nutrimentos más extendidos en el país, pues ocurre entre el 10 y el 70 por ciento de la población, siendo más afectadas las zonas rurales del sur y sureste del país. Esta deficiencia existe en tan altas proporciones a pesar de que la ingestión de hierro en los diferentes grupos de población está por arriba de las cantidades recomendadas. b) La deficiencia clínica de yodo ocurre únicamente en poblaciones muy específicas en algunas regiones del país (en las montañas). Sin embargo, estos estudios se realizaron hace muchos años por lo que la situación actual en esta zona, y quizá en otras, requiere de una actualización. c) Existen algunos estudios que muestran la existencia de deficiencias marginales de zinc en poblaciones aparentemente sanas; se requieren estudios epidemiológicos que identifiquen la magnitud de estas deficiencias y quizá las de otros minerales que no han sido estudiados, así como sus consecuencias en la salud y funcionalidad de la población mexicana

A critical analysis was conducted in 39 publications on the prevalence of trace mineral deficiencies in Mexico, published since 1950. It can be concluded that: a) Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrient deficiency in Mexico. It occurs in 10 to 70% of the population depending on the region of the country. Rural areas in the southern and south-eastern regions are more drastically affected studies. This deficiency occurs even though iron intake in most studies is higher than recommended. b) Clinical signs of iodine deficiency have been reported in some mountainous regions of the country. These studies were carried out about 30 years ago, so the potential existence of iodine deficiency in these and other regions requires further study. c) There is some evidence of marginal zinc deficiency in some population groups. The magnitude of this deficiency, and the existence of other mineral deficiencies and their consequences for the health and function of the Mexican population, require further investigation.

Suplementación con hierro en escolares anémicos

Se estudiaron 60 niños, con un promedio de edad de 6 años a 7 meses en una localidad subtropical del Ecuador. Se obtuvieron valores de hemoglobina (Hb) antes del tratamiento y luego de 30 días de administración de hierro oral 3 mg/kg/día. el cumplimiento de las indicaciones terapéuticas se evaluó siguiendo la metodología vigente en unidades de salud y por profesinales médicos. Se analizó el patrón de rendimiento escolar por calificaciones globales y se obtuvo datos antropométricos (edad, peso, talla). Se encontró una prevalencia de anemia de 33.3 por ciento, más acentuada en hombre y en el grupo de niños nutricionalmnente normales (36.3 por ciento). La prevalencia de desnutrición global, crónica y aguda fue de 42.5 por ciento, 38.3 por ciento y 20.07 por ciento respectivamente. Llama la atención este último dato, el cual es mayor que las cifras de referencia. El cumplimiento del tratamiento fue del 80 por ciento y la corrección de anemia fue únicamente del 18 por ciento. No se encontró cambios en el rendimiento escolar luego de la suplementación con hierro...

[Treatment with prophylactic doses of ferrous sulphate as an intervention measure in the campaign++ against iron deficiency in children cared for in basic health units]. / Terapêutica com doses profiláticas de sulfato ferroso como medida de intervenção no combate à carência de ferro em crianças atendidas em unidades básicas de saúde.

The efficacy of medical prophylaxis in the fight against iron deficiency anemia in 620 children aged from four to thirty-six months, attended in two health units of the municipality of S. Paulo, Brazil, was tested. First, the children's blood was tested for hemoglobin level and electrophoresis. Then they received daily doses of iron sulphate in the form of drops, corresponding to 12 mg/day of elementary iron, over a 30-day period. Afterwards, they were asked to return for re-evaluation. Twenty-five percent of children under 6 months presented hemoglobin levels under 11.0 g/dl. The highest occurrences of anemia were detected among children aged 9 to 11 months (49.5%) and in the age bracket between 12 and 23 months (50.4%). After the established period, only 37.4% of the children with anemia and 52.4% of children who did not present anaemia returned for further evaluation. Of the 299 evaluated, only 157 (52.5%) had taken the medication correctly. Frequency of hemoglobin inferior to 9.5 g/dl dropped from 17.1% at the beginning to 8.1% at the end of the intervention. On the other hand, the percentage of children with hemoglobin above 12.0 g/dl increased from 13.4% to 33.4%. Those children who took their iron supplements correctly registered a significantly higher drop in the number of cases of anemia than that observed in those who had not taken the supplement correctly. The great majority (80.3%) did not present any side effects of medication.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Terapêutica com doses profiláticas de sultato ferroso como medida de intervençao no combate à carência de ferro em crianças atendidas em unidades básicas de saúde / Treatment with prophylactic doses of ferrous sulphate in tne fight againist iron deficiency in children attended in basis health units

Objetiva testar a terapêutica com doses profiláticas de sulfato ferroso no combate à anemia carencial ferropriva, em 620 crianças de 4 a 36 meses de idade, atendidas em duas unidades de saúde do Município de Säo Paulo, Brasil. As crianças foram submetidas a coleta de sangue para dosagem de hemoglobina. Em seguida, foi prescrito dosagem de 12 mg/dia de ferro elementar, por 30 dias. Observou-se que 25 por cento dos menores de 6 meses apresentaram níveis de hemoglobina inferiores a 11,0 g/dl. As maiores ocorrências de anemia foram detectadas entre os 9 e 23 meses de idade (50,0 por cento). Decorrido o prazo, apenas 37,4 por cento das crianças com anemia e 52,4 por cento das näo anêmicas retornaram para reavaliaçäo. Das 299 que foram reavaliadas, somente 157 (52,5 por cento) receberam a medicaçäo corretamente. A freqüência de hemoglobinas inferiores a 9,5 g/dl caiu de 17,1 por cento no início, para 8,1 por cento ao final da intervençäo. Por outro lado, o percentual de crianças com hemoglobinas superiores a 12,0 g/dl subiu de 13,4 por cento para 33,4 por cento. As que receberam a suplementaçäo férrica de forma correta registraram queda nos índices de anemia sensivelmente maior que a observada naquelas suplementadas de forma incorreta. Concluiu-se que a terapêutica com doses profiláticas de sulfato ferroso, apesar de se mostrar eficiente na recuperaçäo dos níveis de hemoglobina, apresenta sérios entraves do ponto de vista operacional

Estado de la nutrición en hierro en escolares rurales y urbanos de Talca / Iron nutritional status in rural and urban school children of Talca

La deficiencia de hierro es una de las carencias nutricionales mas frecuentes y puede afectar los rendimientos físico e intelectual. El propósito de este estudio fue conocer el estado de la nutrición en hierro de escolares de 8 a 11 años, de colegios rurales y urbanos adscritos al "programa de las 900 escuelas", de mejoramiento de los establecimientos de áreas pobres, en la provincia de Talca. En los niños y niñas de colegios rurales se registraron promedios significativamente mas altos de concentración de hemoglobina (13,7 y 13,6 g/dl) que en los colegios urbanos (13,0 y 13,1 g/dl) (p<0,05). No se encontraron diferencias significativas en la saturación de transferrina y ferritina sérica. No se comprobaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres para las diferentes variables de ambos grupos (urbano y rural). Las mujeres de colegios urbanos presentaron frecuencias de 4,5, 7,0 y 2,1 por ciento de escasez de hierro, eritropoyesis deficiente y anemia respectivamente, proporciones levemente superiores a las encontradas en niñas rurales. Los escolares de colegios del programa de las 900 escuelas no presentan deficiencia en la nutrición de hierro

[Anemia in children under 2 years in basic health care units in the State of São Paulo, Brazil]. / Anemia em crianças menores de dois anos atendidas nas unidades básicas de saúde no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil.

The present study sought to determine the prevalence of anemia in 2,992 children, aged between 6 and 23 months, who voluntarily attended 160 Basis Health Care Units, located in 63 cities of the 5 Regional Health Coordinating areas of the State of S. Paulo, Brazil. Blood samples were collected by venous puncture and hemoglobin was measured by the cianometahemoglobin method. The WHO criteria for the diagnosis of anemia (Hb < 11.0 g/dl) were used: 59.1% of the children were shown to be anemic, with prevalence varying from 47.8% to 68.7% in the 5 RHCs. RHC 1, which comprises the Greater S. Paulo Region, presented a prevalence of anemia significantly lower than the other 4 RHCs, which cover the rest of the State. Hemoglobin levels 9.5 g/dl were found in 25.1% of the children. Anemia was more frequent in male children in male children, in those born, with a weight of less than 3,000 gr, in those who were breastfed for less than 2 months and in those that who presented some degree of energy deficient proteic malnutrition, according to Gomez's criteria. This is the first of a series of 4 articles whose purpose is the determining the prevalence of anemia in the State of S. Paulo and of testing the intervention alternatives with a view to curtailing the incidence of this pathology which today is the most prevalent nutritional disturbance in the world.

Anemia em crianças menores de dois anos atendidas nas unidades básicas de saúde no Estado de Säo Paulo, Brasil / Anaemia in children under two years in basic health care units in the state of S. Paulo, Brazil

Objetiva verificar a prevalência da anemia em crianças atendidas nas unidades básicas de saúde do Estado de Säo Paulo, Brasil. Foram estudadas 2.992 crianças de 6 a 23 meses de idade, atendidas dentro da demanda espontânea, em 160 unidades de saúde de 63 municípios das 5 Coordenaçöes das Regiöes de Saúde do Estado (CRS). O sangue foi coletado por punçäo venosa, e a hemoglobina dosada plo método da cianometa-hemoglobina. Utilizou-se o critério da Organizaçäo Mundial de Saúde para caracterizar a anemia (Hb<11,0 g/dl). Detectou-se que 59,1 por cento das crianças eram anêmicas, sendo que a prevalência variou entre 47,8 por cento e 68,7 por cento nas 5 CRS. A CRS-1, que compreende a Regiäo Metropolitana da Grande Säo Paulo, apresentou prevalência de anemia significativamente inferior à observada nas 4 CRSs que se situam no interior do Estado. Encontrou-se níveis de hemoglobina inferiores a 9,5 g/dl em 25,1 por cento das crianças. A anemia atingiu mais as crianças do sexo masculino, as que nasceram com peso inferior a 3.000 g, as que foram amamentadas por um período inferior a 2 meses e as que apresentavam algum grau de desnutriçäo energético-protéica, segundo o critério de Gomez

Anaemia, iron deficiency and malaria in a rural community in Brazilian Amazon.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the incidence of anaemia, iron deficiency and malaria in a malaria-endemic community. DESIGN: Three consecutive cross-sectional surveys (A, B and C) of the whole population made at 6-month intervals and malaria surveillance between the surveys. SETTING: Urupá, a rural community in Western Brazilian Amazon. SUBJECTS: 133 people of all age groups present in at least two cross-sectional surveys. INTERVENTIONS: Anaemic patients received ferrous sulphate during 3 months. Patients parasitized by intestinal nematodes were given mebendazole and parasitologically proven Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax malaria attacks were treated with quinine or chloroquine plus primaquine. RESULTS: Anaemia (haemoglobin concentrations [Hb] below the cut-off values proposed by the World Health Organization) was diagnosed in respectively 10.0% (13 of 130) subjects in survey A, 9.2% (10 of 109) in B and 29.7% (27 of 91) in C. Depleted iron stores [serum ferritin (SF) < 12 micrograms/l] were detected in 10.0% subjects in survey A, 10.1% in B but in only 8.8% subjects in survey C. Concomitant anaemia and low SF was detected in 5.4% subjects in survey A, 3.7% in B and 6.6% in C. Mean Hb from anaemic patients diagnosed and treated during the study (n = 17) raised 1.2 g/dl after iron therapy and most of them (13 of 17, 76.5%) became non-anaemic. The highest malaria transmission was observed between surveys B and C. People who suffered at least one malaria attack during this period (27 of 63) were at a slightly greater risk of subsequent anaemia (odds ratio = 2.85, 95% confidence interval 0.81-10.28). CONCLUSIONS: Both malaria and iron deficiency could be considered as important causes of anaemia in this population. SPONSORSHIP: Supported by grants from the UNDP/World Bank/World Health Organization Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (no. 890245), the Ministére des Affaires Etrangeres, France, and from the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (no. 92/1336-4). M.A.C. was supported by a doctoral fellowship from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico.

[High altitude anemia: validity of definition criteria]. / Anémie en altitude: validité du critère de définition.

The effect of iron and folate supplementation on the hemoglobin response and iron status was studied in male and female equatorian medical students: 66 in Quito (2,800 m altitude) and 40 in Guayaquil (sea level). At the end of the supplementation, there was a nearly complete disappearance of biochemical evidence of iron deficiency in the two groups of students. In Quito, 30% of the men and 26% of the women increased their hemoglobin concentration by more than 1 g/dl after one month of supplementation and could be considered as true anemics, compared to 31% of the men and 29% of the women in Guayaquil. This study shows that at sea level, cut-off points defined by WHO for hemoglobin, taking as reference the impact of a supplementation trial, have a specificity of 100% but poor sensitivity (58%). For people living at high altitudes, cut-off limits adjusted for altitude seem unsuitable: the specificity is 98% but the sensitivity is 0%. Studies taking into account all the factors impacting on the hemoglobin level could be useful for defining cut-off points for high-altitude anemia better than those currently recommended.

A alimentaçäo e a anemia carencial em adolescentes / Nutrition and iron deficiency anemia in teenagers

Com o objetivo de verificar o papel da alimentaçäo como um dos determinantes da anemia prevalente entre adolescentes do município de Osasco - Säo Paulo (Brasil), foram estudados 509 escolares das quintas e oitavas séries de escolas da Rede Pública de Ensino de Osasco. A prevalência de anemia, identificada através da determinaçäo da concentraçäo de hemoglobina do sangue em amostras colhidas por punçäo digital, pelo método da cianometahemoglobina, foi baixa (5,3 por cento), näo havendo diferença entre os sexos. O perfil nutricional, identificando através de medidas antropométricas, revelou que 17,3 por cento dos adolescentes se localizaram abaixo do percentil 10 para peso/idade e 4,7 por cento abaixo do percentil 3. A proporçäo de desnutridos foi maior entre os alunos das quintas séries. Os homens apresentaram-se em piores condiçöes nutricionais do que as mulheres. A prática alimentar mostra pequeno consumo de alimentos fonte de vitamina C e a tendência da substituiçäo do jantar tradicional por um lanche. A dieta consumida pelos adolescentes pode ser considerada de boa qualidade, justificando a baixa prevalência de anemia encontrada, embora a pequena densidade do ferro e do ferro biodisponível da dieta seja um indicador da provável existência de indivíduos deficientes em ferro em proporçäo apreciável na populaçäo