Comparison of Ultrasonography and Conventional Fluoroscopy Guided Caudal Epidural Injection in Chronic Low Back Pain.

AIM: To compare the efficacies of fluoroscopy- and ultrasound (US)-guided caudal epidural steroid injections (CESIs) in patients with chronic low back pain (LBP). MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study included patients with chronic LBP who underwent US- (Group U; n = 90) or fluoroscopyguided (Group F; n = 90) CESI. The procedure time, successful injection rate on the first attempt, complication rate, Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score, and Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) score before CESI and after 3 weeks and 3 months of CESI were analyzed. RESULTS: NRS and ODI scores improved at 3 weeks (p < 0.001) and 3 months (p < 0.001) after CESIs. No significant differences were noted between the two groups for the NRS (p=0.22 and p=0.47) and ODI (p=0.58, p=0.22) scores. Moreover, the CESI procedure time was significantly shorter (p < 0.001) and the successful injection rate on the first attempt was significantly higher (p=0.002) in Group U than in Group F. The complication rate difference was statistically insignificant between the two groups (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Outcomes of US-guided CESI were superior than those of fluoroscopy-guided CESI considering the successful injection rate on the first attempt and procedure time. In addition, US-guided CESI was as effective as fluoroscopy-guided CESI and did not expose patients and practitioners to radiation.

Effectiveness of Superior Hypogastric Plexus Block for Pain Control Compared to Epidural Anesthesia in Women Requiring Uterine Artery Embolization for the Treatment of Uterine Fibroids - A Retrospective Evaluation.

PURPOSE: To assess the effectiveness of pain management with superior hypogastric plexus block (SHPB) compared to epidural anesthesia (EDA) in women requiring uterine artery embolization (UAE). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this retrospective, single-center, non-randomized trial we included 79 women with symptomatic uterine fibroids who were scheduled for percutaneous, transcatheter UAE. According to their informed decision, the women were assigned to two different approaches of pain management including either SHPB or EDA. The effectiveness outcome measure was patient reported pain using a numeric rating scale ranging from 1 to 10. The pain score was assessed at UAE, 2 hours thereafter, and at subsequent intervals of 6 hours up to 36 hours after intervention. RESULTS: Treatment groups did not differ significantly regarding age, pain score for regular menstrual cramps, uterine fibroid size, location, and symptoms of uterine fibroids. During UAE and up to 6 hours thereafter, women who received SHPB experienced stronger pain than those who received EDA (mean pain score during UAE: 3.3 vs. 1.5, p < 0.001; at 2 hours: 4.4 vs. 2.8, p = 0.012; at 6 hours: 4.4 vs. 2.6, p = 0.021). The maximum pain level was 5.8 ±â€Š2.9 with SHPB and 4.5 ±â€Š2.9 with EDA (p = 0.086). Women with a history of severe menorrhagia tended to experience worse pain than those without (regression coefficient 2.5 [95 % confidence interval -0.3 to 5.3], p = 0.076). CONCLUSION: Among women who underwent UAE, pain management including SHPB resulted in stronger pain during and after the procedure than pain treatment including EDA. KEY POINTS: · Pain control with superior hypogastric plexus block was worse than epidural anesthesia.. · Peak of pain was at 12 hours after uterine artery embolization.. · Maximum pain was independent from uterine fibroid size or location.. CITATION FORMAT: · Malouhi A, Aschenbach R, Erbe A et al. Effectiveness of Superior Hypogastric Plexus Block for Pain Control Compared to Epidural Anesthesia in Women Requiring Uterine Artery Embolization for the Treatment of Uterine Fibroids - A Retrospective Evaluation. Fortschr Röntgenstr 2021; 193: 289 - 297.

Determining competence in performing obstetric combined spinal-epidural procedures in junior anesthesiology residents: results from a cumulative sum analysis.

BACKGROUND: The epidural anesthesia technique is a challenging skill to master. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) stipulates that anesthesiology residents must complete 40 epidural procedures by the end of junior residency. The rationale is unknown. The aim of this prospective study was to determine the minimum case experience required to demonstrate competence in performing obstetric combined spinal-epidural procedures among junior residents, using an objective statistical tool, the cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis. METHODS: Twenty-four residents, with no prior experience performing epidurals, sequentially recorded all obstetric combined spinal-epidural procedures as a 'success' or 'failure', based on study criteria. Individual CUSUM graphs were plotted, with acceptable and unacceptable failure rates set at 20% and 35%, respectively. The number of procedural attempts necessary to demonstrate competence was determined. RESULTS: Twenty-four residents (mean (SD) age 29 (2) years) participated in the study. Median (IQR) number of procedures was 78 (66-85), with a median (IQR) success rate of 86% (82-89%). Nineteen of 24 residents required a median (IQR) of 40 (33-50) attempts to demonstrate competence. Five did not achieve procedural competence in the training period. The CUSUM graphs highlighted performance trends that required intervention. CONCLUSION: Competence was achieved by 19/24 residents after the ACGME-required case experience of 40 combined spinal-epidural procedures, based on a predefined acceptable failure rate of 20%. In our experience, CUSUM analysis is useful in monitoring technical performance over time and should be included as an adjunct assessment method for determining procedural competence.

Does the Technique for Assessing Loss of Resistance Alter the Magnitude of Epidural Needle Tip Overshoot?

INTRODUCTION: Postdural puncture headache due to accidental dural puncture is a consequence of excessive needle tip overshoot distance after entering the epidural space via a loss of resistance (LOR) technique. We are not aware of any quantitative comparison of the magnitude of needle tip overshoot (distance traveled by the needle tip beyond the point where LOR can be discerned) for the various LOR assessment techniques that are taught. Such a comparison may provide insight into contributing factors of accidental dural puncture and associated postdural puncture headache. METHODS: A custom-built simulator was used to evaluate the following 3 LOR assessment techniques: incremental needle advancement, intermittent LOR assessment (II); continuous needle advancement, high-frequency intermittent LOR assessment (CI); and continuous needle advancement, continuous LOR assessment (CC). RESULTS: There were significant mean differences in maximum overshoot past a virtual LOR plane due to technique (F(2,124) = 79.31, P < 0.001) (Fig. 2). Specifically, maximum overshoot was greater with technique II [mean = 3.8 mm, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.4-4.3] versus either CC (mean = 1.9 mm, 95% CI = 1.5-1.8, P < 0.001) or CI (mean = 1.4 mm, 95% CI = 0.9-2.3, P < 0.001). Differences in maximum overshoot between CC and CI were not statistically different (P = 0.996). Maximum overshoot was greater at 4 cm (mean = 3.0 mm, 95% CI = 2.6-3.4) compared with 5 cm (mean = 2.3 mm, 95% CI = 2.0-2.5, P = 0.044), 6 cm (mean = 2.0 mm, 95% CI = 1.9-2.2, P = 0.054), 7 cm (mean = 1.9 mm, 95% CI = 1.7-2.1, P = 0.002), and 8 cm (mean = 1.8 mm, 95% CI = 1.6-2.1, P = 0.001). In addition, maximum overshoot at 5 cm was greater than that at 7 cm (P = 0.020) and 8 cm (P = 0.037). The other LOR depths were not statistically significantly different from each other. Depth did not have a significant interaction with technique (P = 0.517). Technique preference had neither a significant relationship to maximum overshoot (P = 0.588) nor a significant interaction with LOR assessment technique (P = 0.689). DISCUSSION: Technique II LOR assessment produced the greatest needle overshoot past the simulated LOR plane after obtaining LOR. This was consistent across all LOR depths. In this bench study, the II technique resulted in the deepest needle tip maximum overshoot. We are in the process of designing a clinical study to collect similar data in patients.

How are decisions made to access a planned epidural in labour? Midwife-woman interactions in antenatal consultations.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the ways in the decision to access a planned epidural in labour was topicalised and negotiated between pregnant women and midwives. DESIGN: This article uses conversation analysis to examine how decision-making unfolds in antenatal consultations in a large metropolitan hospital in South Australia. Data were sampled from naturally-occurring interactions between women and midwives in routine antenatal consultations. Analysis focused on talk about planning to access (or, avoid) an epidural during an upcoming labour. FINDINGS: This paper illustrates that in the context of woman-centred care, women are held unilaterally responsible for the decision to accept or reject a planned epidural in labour with little or no input from the midwife. Midwives take a step back from involvement in the discussion beyond the solicitation of a decision from the woman. Women wanting a planned epidural took a strong, assertive stance in the interaction and drew on their previous birthing experience, limiting opportunity for the midwife to engage in meaningful discussion about the risks and benefits. On the other hand, women rejecting a planned epidural were less assertive and engaged in more complex interactional work to account for their decision. KEY CONCLUSIONS: The lack of involvement by midwives may be linked to the non-directive ethos that prevails in maternity care. It is argued that, in this dataset, the institutional imperative for women to know and decide on pain relief while pregnant in order to allocate to a model of care is prioritised over women's aspirations and expectations of childbirth. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: By analysing the ways in which midwives and women interact at the point in time at which decisions were made to plan access to an epidural we can continue to reveal underlying forces that drive the rising rates of medical interventions in childbirth. This paper also contributes to research evidence on how midwives manage the potentially contradictory dialect between supporting women's childbirth preferences while also managing institutional requirements and evidence-based practice.

Anestesia peridural continua con bomba de infusión elastomérica en mamoplastia de aumento / Continuous epidural anesthesia with elastomeric infusion pump in augmentation mammoplasty

Introducción: La anestesia y analgesia peridural continua, además de proporcionar un adecuado control del dolor posoperatorio, aportan beneficios como la disminución del riesgo de trombosis y de sangrado intraoperatorio. Objetivo: Describir el comportamiento y los resultados de la aplicación de la anestesia peridural continua mediante bomba de infusión elastomérica en pacientes intervenidas de mamoplastia de aumento. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional, descriptivo, prospectivo, longitudinal en el Hospital Clínico Quirúrgico Hermanos Ameijeiras, entre febrero 2014 y febrero 2016. Resultados: 72,8 fueron las pacientes entre 20 y 29 años, 57,6 por ciento era ASA I y 78,3 por ciento normopeso. El 50 por ciento fueron operadas por hipoplasia mamaria. La frecuencia cardiaca, la tensión arterial sistólica y diastólica disminuyeron a los 5 min después de aplicarse la técnica. La media del dolor fue menor de 3 en todos los momentos evaluados. Las complicaciones inmediatas fueron escasas y leves. El 85,9 por ciento calificó la técnica como buena. Conclusiones: El comportamiento y los resultados de la aplicación de la anestesia peridural continua mediante bomba de infusión elastomérica en la mamoplastia de aumento fue estable y segura. Existieron diferencias significativas en el comportamiento de las variables hemodinámicas intraoperatorias y de la intensidad de dolor, la cual fue leve en todas sus mediciones. Las complicaciones mediatas fueron escasas y no complejas. Más de las tres cuartas partes de las pacientes evaluaron de acuerdo al grado de satisfacción de buena la efectividad de la técnica anestésica para este tipo de procedimiento quirúrgico(AU)

Introduction: Continuous epidural anesthesia and analgesia, in addition to providing adequate control of postoperative pain, provide benefits such as decreased risk of thrombosis and intraoperative bleeding. Objective: To describe the behavior and results of the application of continuous epidural anesthesia by means of an elastomeric infusion pump in patients undergoing augmentation mammoplasty. Methods: An observational, descriptive, prospective, longitudinal study was conducted at Hermanos Ameijeiras Clinical Surgical Hospital, between February 2014 and February 2016. Results: 72.8 percent were patients 20-29 years old, 57.6 percent were ASA I, and 78.3 percent had normal weight. 50 percent were operated for mammary hypoplasia. Heart rate, as well as systolic and diastolic blood pressure decreased 5 minutes after the technique was applied. The average pain was less than 3 in all the moments evaluated. The immediate complications were minimal and mild. 85.9 (AU) described the technique as good. Conclusions: The behavior and results of the application of continuous epidural anesthesia using an elastomeric infusion pump in the augmentation mammoplasty was stable and safe. There were significant differences in the behavior of intraoperative hemodynamic variables and pain intensity, which was slight in all its measurements. The mediate complications were scarce and not complex. More than three quarters of the patients evaluated, based on the degree of satisfaction, the effectiveness of the anesthetic technique as good for this type of surgical procedure(AU)

Process Optimization and Digital Quality Improvement to Enhance Timely Initiation of Epidural Infusions and Postoperative Pain Control.

BACKGROUND: Although intraoperative epidural analgesia improves postoperative pain control, a recent quality improvement project demonstrated that only 59% of epidural infusions are started in the operating room before patient arrival in the postanesthesia care unit. We evaluated the combined effect of process and digital quality improvement efforts on provider compliance with starting continuous epidural infusions during surgery. METHODS: In October 2014, we instituted 2 process improvement initiatives: (1) an electronic order queue to assist the operating room pharmacy with infusate preparation; and (2) a designated workspace for the storage of equipment related to epidural catheter placement and drug infusion delivery. In addition, we implemented a digital quality improvement initiative, an Anesthesia Information Management System-mediated clinical decision support, to prompt anesthesia providers to start and document epidural infusions in pertinent patients. We assessed anesthesia provider compliance with epidural infusion initiation in the operating room and postoperative pain-related outcomes before (PRE: October 1, 2012 to September 31, 2014) and after (POST: January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2016) implementation of the quality improvement initiatives. RESULTS: Compliance with starting intraoperative epidural infusions was 59% in the PRE group and 85% in the POST group. After adjustment for confounders and preintervention time trends, segmented regression analysis demonstrated a statistically significant increase in compliance with the intervention in the POST phase (odds ratio, 2.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.73-4.49; P < .001). In the PRE and POST groups, cumulative postoperative intravenous opioid use (geometric mean) was 62 and 34 mg oral morphine equivalents, respectively. A segmented regression analysis did not demonstrate a statistically significant difference (P = .38) after adjustment for preintervention time trends. CONCLUSIONS: Process workflow optimization along with Anesthesia Information Management System-mediated digital quality improvement efforts increased compliance to intraoperative epidural infusion initiation. Adjusted for preintervention time trends, these findings coincided with a statistically insignificant decrease in postoperative opioid use in the postanesthesia care unit during the POST phase.

Nurse Practitioner-Administered Chloroprocaine in Children with Postoperative Pain.

BACKGROUND: Pain is a complex physical and emotional experience. Therefore, assessment of acute pain requires self-report when possible, observations of emotional and behavioral responses and changes in vital signs. Peripheral nerve and epidural catheters often provide postoperative analgesia in children. Administration of chloroprocaine (a short acting local anesthetic) via a peripheral nerve or epidural catheter allows for a comparison of pain scores, observations of emotional and behavioral responses and changes in vital signs to determine catheter function. AIMS: The aims of this study are to describe the use chloroprocaine injections for testing catheters; patient response; and how changes to pain management are guided by the patient response. METHODS: This study describes the use of chloroprocaine injections to manage pain and assess the function of peripheral nerve or epidural catheters in a pediatric population. We examined 128 surgical patients, (0-25 years old), who received chloroprocaine injections for testing peripheral nerve or epidural catheters. Patient outcomes included: blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate and pain intensity scores. RESULTS: There were no significant adverse events. The injection guided intervention by determining the function of regional analgesia in the majority (98.5%) of patients. DISCUSSION: Chloroprocaine injections appear to be useful to evaluate functionality of peripheral nerve and epidural catheters after surgery in a pediatric population.

The Accuracy of a Handheld Ultrasound Device for Neuraxial Depth and Landmark Assessment: A Prospective Cohort Trial.

This study investigated the accuracy of a wireless handheld ultrasound with pattern recognition software that recognizes lumbar spine bony landmarks and measures depth to epidural space (Accuro, Rivanna Medical, Charlottesville, VA) (AU). AU measurements to epidural space were compared to Tuohy needle depth to epidural space (depth to loss of resistance at epidural placement). Data from 47 women requesting labor epidural analgesia were analyzed. The mean difference between depth to epidural space measured by AU versus needle depth was -0.61 cm (95% confidence interval, -0.79 to -0.44), with a standard deviation of 0.58 (95% confidence interval, 0.48-0.73). Using the AU-identified insertion point resulted in successful epidural placement at first attempt in 87% of patients, 78% without redirects.

Postpartum tubal ligation: A retrospective review of anesthetic management at a single institution and a practice survey of academic institutions.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The primary aim was to evaluate institutional anesthetic techniques utilized for postpartum tubal ligation (PPTL). Secondarily, academic institutions were surveyed on their clinical practice for PPTL. DESIGN: An institutional-specific retrospective review of patients with ICD-9 procedure codes for PPTL over a 2-year period was conducted. Obstetric anesthesia fellowship directors were surveyed on anesthetic management of PPTL. SETTING: Labor and delivery unit. Internet survey. PATIENTS: 202 PPTL procedures were reviewed. 47 institutions were surveyed; 26 responses were received. MEASUREMENTS: Timing of PPTL, anesthetic management, postoperative pain and length of stay. MAIN RESULTS: There was an epidural catheter reactivation failure rate of 26% (18/69 epidural catheter reactivation attempts). Time from epidural catheter insertion to PPTL was a significant factor associated with failure: median [IQR; range] time for successful versus failed epidural catheter reactivation was 17h [10-25; 3-55] and 28h [14-33; 5-42], respectively (P=0.028). Epidural catheter reactivation failure led to significantly longer times to provide surgical anesthesia than successful epidural catheter reactivation or primary spinal technique: median [IQR] 41min [33-54] versus 15min [12-21] and 19min [15-24], respectively (P<0.0001). Fifty-eight percent (15/26) of respondents routinely leave the labor epidural catheter in-situ if PPTL is planned. Sixty-five percent (17/26) and 7% (2/26) would not attempt to reactivate the epidural catheter for PPTL if >8h and >24h post-delivery, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Epidural catheter reactivation failure increases with longer intervals between catheter placement and PPTL. Failed epidural catheter reactivation increases anesthetic and operating room times. Our results and the significant variability in practice from our survey suggest recommendations on the timing and anesthetic management are needed to reduce unfulfilled PPTL procedures.

[Recent standards in management of obstetric anesthesia]. / Aktuelle Versorgungskonzepte in der geburtshilflichen Anästhesie.

The following article contains information not only for the clinical working anaesthesiologist, but also for other specialists involved in obstetric affairs. Besides a synopsis of a German translation of the current "Practice Guidelines for Obstetric Anaesthesia 2016" [1], written by the American Society of Anesthesiologists, the authors provide personal information regarding major topics of obstetric anaesthesia including pre-anaesthesia patient evaluation, equipment and staff at the delivery room, use of general anaesthesia, peridural analgesia, spinal anaesthesia, combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia, single shot spinal anaesthesia, and programmed intermittent epidural bolus.

Digital Subtraction Angiography Use During Epidural Steroid Injections Does Not Reliably Distinguish Artery from Vein.

BACKGROUND: Epidural steroid injections (ESIs) are among the most common procedures performed in an interventional pain management practice. It is well known that tragic complications may arise from ESIs, most commonly those performed using a transforaminal approach. Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) has been hailed as a fluoroscopic technique that can be used to detect arterial placement of the injection needle, and therefore as a safety measure that can decrease the incidence of catastrophic sequelae of these procedures. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article was to review existing scientific pain literature to determine if DSA can distinguish arterial vs. venous uptake. STUDY DESIGN: Narrative review. METHODS: The current narrative review of DSA in interventional spine was completed with a PUBMED search using the key words: digital subtraction angiography, epidural, fluoroscopy, intravascular injection, paraplegia, and quadriplegia in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. RESULTS: After identification of duplicate articles, 383 articles were screened by title, abstract, and/or full article review. Ten of these articles were deemed appropriate, after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, as they specifically looked at the use of digital subtraction angiography in interventional spine epidural injections. This included 4 case reports, 3 prospective studies, one retrospective analysis, one prospective cohort study, and one meta-analysis. All of the available studies claiming that DSA was capable of detecting vascular spread are likely accurate, but no significant detection of specifically arterial spread has been reported. The known catastrophic complications related to ESIs are purported to be due to arterial injection of insoluble steroids or local anesthetic and detection of arterial spread of contrast during fluoroscopy would be of obvious benefit to the interventionalist. LIMITATIONS: Small study size, non-randomized studies between DSA and real time fluoroscopy. CONCLUSION: Existing studies do not support that DSA can predict arterial spread. In fact, DSA exposes the practitioner and the patient to higher levels of radiation without objective evidence of any safety parameters. KEY WORDS: Digital subtraction angiography, real-time fluoroscopy, transforaminal epidural injection, particulate steroids, cervical radicular artery, lumbar radicular artery, spinal cord injury.

Reliability of Waveform Analysis as an Adjunct to Loss of Resistance for Thoracic Epidural Blocks.

BACKGROUND: The epidural space is most commonly identified with loss of resistance (LOR). Although sensitive, LOR lacks specificity, as cysts in interspinous ligaments, gaps in ligamentum flavum, paravertebral muscles, thoracic paravertebral spaces, and intermuscular planes can yield nonepidural LOR. Epidural waveform analysis (EWA) provides a simple confirmatory adjunct for LOR. When the needle is correctly positioned inside the epidural space, measurement of the pressure at its tip results in a pulsatile waveform. In this observational study, we set out to assess the sensitivity, specificity, as well as positive and negative predictive values of EWA for thoracic epidural blocks. METHODS: We enrolled a convenience sample of 160 patients undergoing thoracic epidural blocks for thoracic surgery, abdominal surgery, or rib fractures. The choice of patient position (sitting or lateral decubitus), approach (midline or paramedian), and LOR medium (air or normal saline) was left to the operator (attending anesthesiologist, fellow, or resident). After obtaining a satisfactory LOR, the operator injected 5 mL of normal saline through the epidural needle. A sterile tubing, connected to a pressure transducer, was attached to the needle to measure the pressure at the needle tip. A 4-mL bolus of lidocaine 2% with epinephrine 5 µg/mL was then administered and, after 10 minutes, the patient was assessed for sensory blockade to ice. RESULTS: The failure rate (incorrect identification of the epidural space with LOR) was 23.1%. Of these 37 failed epidural blocks, 27 provided no sensory anesthesia at 10 minutes. In 10 subjects, the operator was unable to thread the catheter through the needle. When compared with the ice test, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of EWA were 91.1%, 83.8%, 94.9%, and 73.8%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Epidural waveform analysis (with pressure transduction through the needle) provides a simple adjunct to LOR for thoracic epidural blocks. Although its use was devoid of complications, further confirmatory studies are required before its routine implementation in clinical practice.

[EPIDURAL ANALGESIA FOR INTRAOPERATIVE AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE IN NEWBORNS].

Anesthesia care in newborns has to be complex, balanced and safe. Nowadays epidural analgesia (EA) in neonates during intra- and postoperative period is widely used in Russia. Modern EA techniques imply the installation of a catheter into epidural space at lumbar or thoracic level as well as different approach to local anesthetics dosage. Newborns have special anatomy, physiology and pharmacodynamics which have to be taken in mind when EA is used. At the present moment Ropivacine (2 mg/ml) is approved for peripheral nerve blocks in newborns.

Defining competence in obstetric epidural anaesthesia for inexperienced trainees.

BACKGROUND: Cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis has been used for assessing competence of trainees learning new technical skills. One of its disadvantages is the required definition of acceptable and unacceptable success rates. We therefore monitored the development of competence amongst trainees new to obstetric epidural anaesthesia in a large public hospital. METHODS: Obstetric epidural data were collected prospectively between January 1996 and December 2011. Success rates for inexperienced trainees were calculated retrospectively for (1) the whole database, (2) for each consecutive attempt and (3) each trainee's individual overall success rate. Acceptable and unacceptable success rates were defined and CUSUM graphs generated for each trainee. Competence was assessed for each trainee and the number of attempts to reach competence recorded. RESULTS: Mean (sd) success rate for all inexperienced trainees was 76.8 (0.1%), range 63-90%. Consecutive attempt success rate produced a learning curve with a mean success rate commencing at 58% on attempt 1. After attempt 10 the attempt number had no effect on subsequent success rates. From these results, the acceptable and unacceptable success rates were set at 65 and 55% respectively. CUSUM graphs demonstrated 76 out of 81 trainees competent after a mean of 46 (22) attempts. CONCLUSIONS: CUSUM is useful for assessing trainee epidural competence. Trainees require approximately 50 attempts, as defined by CUSUM, to reach competence.