Atherothrombotic disease, traditional risk factors, and 4-year mortality in a Latin American population: the REACH Registry.

BACKGROUND: Atherothrombosis is becoming the leading cause of chronic morbidity in developing countries. This epidemiological transition will represent an unbearable socioeconomic burden in the near future. We investigated factors associated with 4-year all-cause mortality in a Latin American population at high risk. HYPOTHESIS: Largely modifiable risk factors as well as polyvascular disease are the main predictors of 4-year all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in this Latin American cohort. METHODS: We analyzed 1816 Latin American stable outpatients (62.3% men, mean age 67 years) with symptomatic atherothrombosis (87.1%) or with multiple risk factors only (12.9%), in the Reduction of Atherothrombosis for Continued Health registry. RESULTS: Of patients with symptomatic atherothrombosis, 57.3% had coronary artery disease, 32% cerebrovascular disease, and 11.7% peripheral artery disease at baseline (9.1% polyvascular). The main risk factors were hypertension (76%), hypercholesterolemia (60%), and smoking (52.3%) in patients with established atherothrombosis; and hypertension (89.7%), diabetes (80.8%), and hypercholesterolemia (73.9%) in those with risk factors only. Four-year all-cause mortality steeply increased with none (6.8%), 1 (9.2%), 2 (15.5%), and 3 (29.2%) symptomatic arterial disease locations. In patients with only 1 location, cardiovascular mortality was significantly higher with peripheral artery disease (11.3%) than with cerebrovascular disease (6%) or coronary artery disease (5.1%). Significant baseline predictors of 4-year all-cause mortality were congestive heart failure (hazard ratio [HR]: 3.81), body mass index <20 (HR: 2.32), hypertension (HR: 1.84), polyvascular disease (HR: 1.69), and age ≥ 65 years (HR: 1.47), whereas statin use (HR: 0.49) and body mass index ≥ 30 (HR: 0.58) were associated with a reduced risk. CONCLUSIONS: Hypertension was the main modifiable risk factor for atherothrombosis and all-cause mortality in this Latin American cohort. Nearly one-third of the population with 3 symptomatic vascular-disease locations died at 4-year follow-up.

Carga de mortalidad asociada a la inactividad física en Bogotá / Burden of mortality associated to physical inactivity in Bogota, Colombia

La carga de mortalidad asociada a la inactividad física (IF) no ha sido estimada para los grandes centros urbanos de países en desarrollo. Objetivo Calcular la carga de mortalidad por seis enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles (ECNT) asociadas a la IF y estimar el número de muertes potencialmente prevenibles si se reduce la prevalencia de IF en la ciudad. Métodos La prevalencia de IF obtenida mediante encuestas poblacionales representativas se combinó con datos sobre la mortalidad en adultos mayores de 45 años durante el año 2002. La mortalidad por ECNT atribuible a la IF y la mortalidad prevenible asociada a reducciones del 30 por ciento en la prevalencia de IF se estimaron mediante cálculos del riesgo atribuible poblacional (RAP). Resultados Una prevalencia de exposición a la IF del 53,2 por ciento se asoció con un RAP de 19,3 por ciento para enfermedad coronaria, 24,2 por ciento para accidentes cerebro vasculares, 13,8 por ciento para hipertensión, 21 por ciento para Diabetes Mellitus, 17,9 por ciento para cáncer de colon y 14,2 por ciento para cáncer de seno. Un 7,6 por ciento de la mortalidad total y un 20,1 por ciento de la mortalidad por ECNT pueden ser atribuibles a la IF. Un 5 por ciento de la mortalidad por ECNT podría evitarse si la prevalencia de IF se reduce en un 30 por ciento. Conclusiones Una proporción considerable de la mortalidad ocasionada por las ECNT más frecuentes puede atribuirse a los efectos de la IF. Estrategias para la disminución de la IF pueden conllevar a reducciones progresivas de la carga de mortalidad por ECNT en la ciudad.

Estimates of the burden of mortality associated to physical inactivity (PI) have not been quantified for large urban centers located in developing countries. Objectives To estimate the burden of mortality due to six chronic diseases (CDZ) associated to PI and the number of potentially preventable deaths associated to reductions in the prevalence of PI. Methods PI exposure prevalence obtained via population surveys was linked to mortality data registered during 2002 among adult (> 45 y) Bogotá residents. The strength of association between PI and disease-specific mortality was obtained from the literature. Population attributable risk (PAR) was used to calculate the CDZ mortality attributable to PI and to estimate the number of potentially preventable deaths associated to a 30 percent reduction in the prevalence of PI. Results A 53,2 percent PI exposure prevalence was associated to a PAR of 19,3 percent for coronary artery disease, 24,2 percent for stroke, 13,8 percent for arterial hypertension, 21 percent for Diabetes Mellitus, 17,9 percent for colon cancer and 14,2 percent for breast cancer. An estimated 7,6 percent of all-cause mortality and 20,1 percent of CDZ mortality could be attributed to PI. An estimated 5 percent of the CDZ mortality could be prevented if PI prevalence is reduced by 30 percent. Conclusion Conservative estimates indicate that a considerable proportion of deaths due to highly prevalent CDZ could be attributed to PI. Strategies to reduce the prevalence of PI in Bogotá could lead to progressive reductions in the burden of CDZ mortality.

[Burden of mortality associated to physical inactivity in Bogota, Colombia]. / Carga de mortalidad asociada a la inactividad física en Bogotá.

UNLABELLED: Estimates of the burden of mortality associated to physical inactivity (PI) have not been quantified for large urban centers located in developing countries. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the burden of mortality due to six chronic diseases (CDZ) associated to PI and the number of potentially preventable deaths associated to reductions in the prevalence of PI. METHODS: PI exposure prevalence obtained via population surveys was linked to mortality data registered during 2002 among adult (> 45 y) Bogotá residents. The strength of association between PI and disease-specific mortality was obtained from the literature. Population attributable risk (PAR) was used to calculate the CDZ mortality attributable to PI and to estimate the number of potentially preventable deaths associated to a 30 % reduction in the prevalence of PI. RESULTS: A 53,2 % PI exposure prevalence was associated to a PAR of 19,3 % for coronary artery disease, 24,2 % for stroke, 13,8 % for arterial hypertension, 21 % for Diabetes Mellitus, 17,9 % for colon cancer and 14,2 % for breast cancer. An estimated 7,6 % of all-cause mortality and 20,1 % of CDZ mortality could be attributed to PI. An estimated 5% of the CDZ mortality could be prevented if PI prevalence is reduced by 30 %. CONCLUSION: Conservative estimates indicate that a considerable proportion of deaths due to highly prevalent CDZ could be attributed to PI. Strategies to reduce the prevalence of PI in Bogotá could lead to progressive reductions in the burden of CDZ mortality.

Factores de riesgo aterogénico en una población de adultos mayores / Atherogenic risk factors in an elderly population

La aterosclerosis constituye la primera causa de muerte y también de morbilidad en ingresos hospitalarios en el ámbito mundial donde las infecciones no ocupan este lugar tan preponderante. En Cuba, sus más frecuentes y dañinas consecuencias orgánicas constituyen también la primera causa de muerte. Se realizó una investigación descriptiva en 108 adultos mayores de un total de 427 pacientes de ambos sexos durante el año 2003 para identificar factores de riesgo aterogénicos. Se utilizó el modelo de recolección del dato primario para obtener información sobre la edad, peso al nacer, antecedentes patológicos personales y familiares, consumo de cigarrillos, tensión arterial sistólica y diastólica, concentración del colesterol del suero y de su fracción de alta densidad y el grado de actividad física. Se encontró que el 26,9 por ciento de la muestra eran fumadores activos, el 33,3 por ciento tenían sobrepeso, el 15,7 eran obesos, el 81,4, hipertensos y de ellos el 50 por ciento eran pacientes nuevos. Un alto porcentaje no practicaba ejercicios físicos. Se apreció que 78 pacientes tenían hipercolesterolemia y en 46, la concentración de la lipoproteína de alta densidad estaba disminuida. En la población de adultos mayores estudiada se identificaron, en porcentajes apreciables, factores de riesgo aterogénicos que pueden ser modificados en aras de tener una mejor salud y calidad de vida(AU)

The aterosclerosis constitutes the first cause of death and also of morbilidad in hospital revenues in the world environment where the infections don't occupy this place so preponderant. In Cuba, their most frequent and harmful organic consequences also constitute the first cause of death. He/she was carried out a descriptive investigation in 108 adults bigger than a total of 427 patients of both sexes during the year 2003 to identify factors of risk aterogénicos. The pattern of gathering of the primary fact was used to obtain information on the age, weight when being born, personal and family pathological antecedents, consumption of cigarettes, systolic arterial tension and diastólica, concentration of the cholesterol of the serum and of its fraction of high density and the degree of physical activity. It was found that 26,9 percent of the sample was smoking active, 33,3 percent had overweight, the 15,7 were obese, the 81,4, hipertensos and of them 50 percent was patient new. A high percentage didn't practice physical exercises. It was appreciated that 78 patients had hipercolesterolemia and in 46, the concentration of the lipoproteína of high density was diminished. In the studied bigger population of adults they were identified, in appreciable percentages, factors of risk aterogénicos that can be modified for the sake of having a better health and quality of life(AU)

Comportamento alimentar e síndrome metabólica: aspectos psicológicos / Eating behavior and metabolic syndrome: psychological aspects

Hábitos alimentares têm grande importância no desenvolvimento e na morbidade de doenças associadas que constituem a síndrome metabólica e que sãoinfluenciadas por fatores psicológicos. A ingestão alimentar, um comportamento complexo que envolve aspectos biopsicossociais, é uma das bases do desenvolvimento das representações psíquicas, elementos constituintes do mundosimbólico, do pensamento, que permitirá a percepção da realidade e o alívio das tensões psíquicas. A compulsão alimentar, quadro derivado de falhas nodesenvolvimento do mundo representativo, é comumente associada à obesidade e às dislipidemias. Além da compulsão alimentar, os estudos epidemiológicos apontam que a depressão se encontra freqüentemente associada à síndrome metabólica, em especial à obesidade, ao diabetes e à hipertensão. Os dinamismos psíquicos envolvidos na depressão e na compulsão alimentar são importantes fatores que explicam as limitações dos resultados no tratamento da síndrome metabólica.

Síndrome metabólica: aspectos históricos, prevalência, e morbidade e mortalidade / The metabolic syndrome: historic aspects, prevalence, morbity, and mortality

A associação de fatores de risco cardiovascular causa hoje grande preocupação nos órgãos de saúde pública nos vários países do mundo. A síndrome metabólica,caracterizada pela associação de vários fatores de risco para doença cardiovascular, resulta provavelmente de fatores genéticos e ambientais. Os primeiros relatos relacionados com a síndrome ocorreram na década de 20, embora tenha sido maisbem descrita a partir da década de 80. A prevalência da síndrome metabólica é alta nos Estados Unidos, porém são poucos os dados em relação à prevalência da síndrome em outros países do mundo. Dispomos hoje de três critérios propostos para classificar a síndrome metabólica: o da Organização Mundial da Saúde, o do "National Cholesterol Evaluation Program" -ATP III e o da "American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists". Como os índices de morbidade e de mortalidade em pacientes com síndrome metabólica são muito altos, essa síndrome deve ser vista hoje como uma das principais metas do ponto de vista terapêutico em termos de prevenção cardiovascular.

Fisiopatologia e fatores de risco ligados à aterotrombose / Pathophysiology and risk factors linked to atherothrombosis

Grande parte da morbidade e mortalidade nos países ocidentais é devido à doença cardiovascular, sendo que se destaca, pela freqüência e gravidade, a doença arterial coronária. Na maioria dos casos, uma ou mais artérias coronárias sofrem processo aterosclerótico, sobre o qual se assesta um trombo, precipitando o evento agudo - daí a denominação aterotrombose para o quadro.Em geral, o desenvolvimento do processo aterotrombótico tem a seguinte seqüência: disfunção endotelial, aderência e infiltração de monócitos à parede arterial, penetração de partículas de LDL (lipoproteínas de baixa densidade), formação da estria gordurosa, lesão gelatinosa, placa fibrosa, ulceração e trombose. Esta última pode obstruir parcial ou totalmente a luz do vaso, levando ou não ao quadro clínico agudo e, eventualmente, ao crescimento da placa aterosclerótica. Há anos foram reconhecidos os denominados fatores de risco, atributos de cada indivíduo que predispõem ao processo aterotrombótico. Seu reconhecimento e controle permite a prevenção do desenvolvimento ou a progressão da doença aterotrombótica. Importante salientar que é comum a presença, no mesmo indivíduo, de mais de um fator de risco, o que traz muitas vezes potencialização de seu efeito deletério. Daí a necessidade da avaliação global de risco...

[Coronary heart disease in Mexico and the clinical epidemiological and preventive relevance]. / La cardiopatía coronaria en México y su importancia clínica, epidemiológica y preventiva.

Coronary heart disease is dominant among heart diseases in the population, a problem to control. Heart diseases have been first place in the general mortality for the last 20 years. The trend show an annual increase without control. Atherosclerosis is responsible for at least for one fourth of all deaths in the country. The combined data of mortality and morbidity, from hospital discharges or the whole country, disclose that one out of three die of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). While only 8% of all deaths registered were admitted to a hospital. Most, 92% were never admitted to any hospital for some reason. The estimated annual incidence of AMI cases is 140,000, on the basis of 3 cases surviving for each case death, accounted by the Death Certification System, which rounds 35,000. Standardized mortality rates of AMI in Mexico are greater than in USA o Canada creating a more concerned worry. The most probable explanation to that situation is lack of preventive care, which should also include the acute care and before reaching the hospital facilities. Running the same chances are hypertension crisis and strokes and diabetic complications. The appropriate care for critical situations might reduce significantly the cardiovascular mortality in the country, in a short and middle term. Prevention is not only for chronic conditions but for acute and critical situations. The programs of preventive care should also include cultural promotion and community awareness. The timely care is life and myocardium saving. The reinforcement of prior to hospital care reduces the delay for AMI adequate intervention. These activities agree quite well with the ongoing programs of CPR, organizing the surviving chain and the training programs for paramedical emergency technicians.

La cardiopatía coronaria en México y su importancia clínica, epidemiológica y preventiva / Coronary heart disease in Mexico and the clinical, epidemiological and preventive relevance

La cardiopatía coronaria en el país es la patología cardiovascular dominante, un problema de prevención y control. Las estadísticas generales informan que las Enfermedades del Corazón figuran en 1er. Lugar, como causa de muerte, desde hace más de 20 años. El problema, ahora se agrava gradualmente, al ritmo de entonces y sin indicio de control. La aterosclerosis en todas sus formas es responsable de por lo menos la cuarta parte de todos los fallecimientos del país. Los datos combinados de mortalidad y morbilidad, general y hospitalaria, indican que la letalidad hospitalaria llega a ser de 25% por infarto agudo de miocardio (IAM). La atención, antes de morir, la recibe sólo 8 de cada 100, testimonio del certificado de defunción. El restante 92% no acude a ningún hospital, por algún motivo. La incidencia anual de IAM se estima en 140,000 casos; considerando que por cada fallecido (35,000) sobreviven 3. Las tasas de mortalidad por IAM, estandarizadas por edad, son más altas que EEUU y Canadá, lo cual crea una expectativa de mayor preocupación. La explicación más plausible sobre la situación es la deficiencia de la atención preventiva, misma que se debe incluir en las situaciones de urgencia y antes de llegar al hospital. Las formas agudizadas de hipertensión arterial, accidentes cerebrovasculares y diabetes mellitus comparten la misma suerte. La atención temprana y adecuada para estas condiciones críticas, puede contribuir importantemente a disminuir la mortalidad cardiovascular del país, a corto y mediano plazo. El enfoque preventivo debe considerarse tanto en lo crónico como en lo urgente y lo crítico. Conviene incluir en el fomento a la salud la cultura por un corazón saludable y paralelamente promover una conciencia colectiva acerca de los problemas sobreagudos. La prestación de cuidados oportunos salva vidas y miocardios. El refuerzo a la atención pre-hospitalaria reducirá el tiempo de retraso en la llegada de casos con IAM. Llevar a cabo estas actividades es compatible con los programas existentes de reanimación cardiopulmonar, cadena de supervivencia y capacitación a técnicos en urgencias médicas.

Coronary heart disease is dominant among heart diseases in the population, a problem to control. Heart diseases have been first place in the general mortality for the last 20 years. The trend show an annual increase without control. Atherosclerosis is responsible for at least for one fourth of all deaths in the country. The combined data of mortality and morbidity, from hospital discharges or the whole country, disclose that one out of three die of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). While only 8% of all deaths registered were admitted to a hospital. Most, 92% were never admitted to any hospital for some reason. The estimated annual incidence of AMI cases is 140,000, on the basis of 3 cases surviving for each case death, accounted by the Death Certification System, which rounds 35,000. Standardized mortality rates of AMI in Mexico are greater than in USA o Canada creating a more concerned worry. The most probable explanation to that situation is lack of preventive care, which should also include the acute care and before reaching the hospital facilities. Running the same chances are hypertension crisis and strokes and diabetic complications. The appropriate care for critical situations might reduce significantly the cardiovascular mortality in the country, in a short and middle term. Prevention is not only for chronic conditions but for acute and critical situations. The programs of preventive care should also include cultural promotion and community awareness. The timely care is life and myocardium saving. The reinforcement of prior to hospital care reduces the delay for AMI adequate intervention. These activities agree quite well with the ongoing programs of CPR, organizing the surviving chain and the training programs for paramedical emergency technicians. (Arch Cardiol Mex 2003; 73:105-114).

[Survival after aorto-femoral shunt with Dacron prosthesis]. / Sobrevivência após derivação aorto-femoral com próteses de Dacron.

The purpose of this paper is to establish the survival rate of patients submitted to aorto-femoral bypass grafting and compare it with the general mortality rate of the population in the State of São Paulo. The records of 210 patients with aorto-femoral bypass grafts and mean age of 54 years were analysed according the Kaplan and Meyer method. The survival curves of the normal population with the age of 55 and 70 years were used for comparison. Our results are comparable with those reported in the international literature. The aorto-femoral atherosclerotic disease Hás the same features wherever lives the patient. The death is caused mainly by cardiac disease. In our patients, however, the infection of the prosthesis was also an important factor in the fatal outcome of the disease. After ten years about half of the patients submitted to an aorto-femoral bypass grafting are still alive.

Importance of age upon the increase in HDL2-cholesterol in the alcoholic.

An inverse relationship has been found between high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and the incidence of coronary disease. A controversy exists in the international literature as to which sub-fraction, HDL2-C or DHL-C, rises after ethanol ingestion. This paper studies a comparison of the levels of circulating cholesterol, HDL-C, HDL2-C and HDL3-C in two groups: a control group of 44 healthy subjects who had no ethanol in over a year, and a second one made up off 40 chronic alcoholics, who consumed between 80 and 160 gr. of ethanol per day. The alcoholic population showed lower levels of cholesterol and higher levels of HDL-C, HDL2-C and HDL3-C. When compared with the control group, the increase was in alcoholics 58% for HDL2-C and 29% for HDL3-C. An analysis of the different age groups shows an increase of 110% in HDL2-C, in alcoholics between ages 31 and 40, as compared with their control group. An increase of 81% occurred between ages 51 and 60, but rarely rose 20% between ages 21 and 30, as well as between 51 and 60. The maximum rise of HDL3-C in drinkers, related to their control group, was 38% during the fourth decade of life. The conclusion is that the HDL2-C subfraction rises in chronic alcoholics, and the changes in other HDL-C subfractions are more useful when they are placed at the different individual's decades of age, than when taken from complete population samples.

Therapeutic effects of bezafibrate and gemfibrozil in hyperlipoproteinaemia type IIa and IIb.

Fifty-nine patients with hyperlipoproteinaemia Type IIa and IIb who had failed to respond to 1-month's dietary therapy were treated over a 4-month period with either bezafibrate (600 mg/day) or gemfibrozil (1200 mg/day) in addition to their diet. Fasting serum lipid (cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides) and blood glucose levels were measured on entry and at monthly intervals, and routine laboratory investigations were carried out before and after treatment to monitor hepatic, renal and haematic tolerance. The results showed that whilst both drugs produced significant reductions from baseline in total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels from Day 30 onwards, the reductions were more marked in the bezafibrate group. There was a trend for HDL-cholesterol levels to increase. Fasting blood glucose levels decreased significantly in the bezafibrate group and to a greater extent than in patients on gemfibrozil. Only 1 patient on bezafibrate did not tolerate bezafibrate whereas 13 patients on gemfibrozil reported side-effects, mainly gastro-intestinal, and 4 had to withdraw from the study during the first or second month.

Consideraciones higienicosociales sobre el problema aterosclerosis-cardiopatía isquémica / Hygienic-social considerations on the problem of ischemic hear-disease-atherosclerosis

Fruto de la colaboración de una especialidad clínica y la higiene social es el presente trabajo, dirección nueva y prometedora de las investigaciones médicas con fundamento marxista. Se presenta sucintamente el impacto médico, social y económico del problema aterosclerosis-cardiopatía isquémica. Se exponen hechos históricos, de distribución geográfica y social que confirman el carácter histórico social de su determinación. Se discute su etiología complementando el enfoque epidemiológico tradicional con el higienicosocial marxista. Se realiza una crítica a las teorías burguesas de la enfermedad residual y las enfermedades de la civilización. Se esbozan las alternativas de su enfrentamiento destacando la importancia de la prevención como enfoque estratégico y se enfatiza la necesidad de que éste alcance una dimensión estatal y social, además de médico sanitario

The relation of antemortem factors to atherosclerosis at autopsy. The Puerto Rico Heart Health Program.

Among 9824 Puerto Rican men, aged 35-79, participating in a prospective study of cardiovascular risk factors, there were 970 deaths during the period 1965-1977. About 14%, or 139, of these deaths had a protocol autopsy following the procedures of the International Atherosclerosis Project. The percentage of involvement with raised atherosclerotic lesions in the coronary arteries was higher in the urban deceased than in the rural. The coronary heart disease death rate was also found to be higher in urban than in rural men in this population. Serum cholesterol and systolic blood pressure measured from up to 8 years before death were related both to raised lesions in the coronary arteries and in the aorta. Age and previous smoking status were associated with lesions only in the aorta. These results lend support for an etiologic relationship between serum cholesterol and blood pressure and the atherosclerotic process.