Biliary ascariasis and severe bacterial outcomes: Report of three cases from a paediatric hospital in Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: Biliary ascariasis, although uncommon, can lead to infectious complications and severe outcomes. This study reported three patients with biliary ascariasis and who were admitted to a paediatric hospital in Salvador, Brazil. CASE REPORTS: Case 1: A 1-year-old boy, with HIV, hospitalised with diarrhoea, fever, pain, and abdominal distension. He underwent an exploratory laparotomy, which showed peritonitis secondary to a perforation of the hepatic duct by ascaris. Case 2: A 3-year-old boy admitted with fever, abdominal pain and jaundice. Imaging examination was suggestive of ascaris in the intrahepatic biliary tract and a hepatic abscess. Case 3: A 7-year-old boy who was hospitalised with a history of abdominal colic, jaundice and fever, with a suggestive image of ascaris in the biliary tract and evolution to sepsis. DISCUSSION: Three cases of biliary ascariasis were reported with severe infectious complications involving peritonitis, hepatic abscess and sepsis. CONCLUSION: In endemic regions, biliary ascariasis should be considered in cases with jaundice, abdominal pain and fever, due to its morbidity and risk of complications.

Bacteremia Among Febrile Patients Attending Selected Healthcare Facilities in Ibadan, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: The relative contribution of bacterial infections to febrile disease is poorly understood in many African countries due to diagnostic limitations. This study screened pediatric and adult patients attending 4 healthcare facilities in Ibadan, Nigeria, for bacteremia and malaria parasitemia. METHODS: Febrile patients underwent clinical diagnosis, malaria parasite testing, and blood culture. Bacteria from positive blood cultures were isolated and speciated using biochemical and serological methods, and Salmonella subtyping was performed by polymerase chain reaction. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested by disk diffusion. RESULTS: A total of 682 patients were recruited between 16 June and 16 October 2017; 467 (68.5%) were <18 years of age. Bacterial pathogens were cultured from the blood of 117 (17.2%) patients, with Staphylococcus aureus (69 [59.0%]) and Salmonella enterica (34 [29.1%]) being the most common species recovered. Twenty-seven (79.4%) of the Salmonella isolates were serovar Typhi and the other 7 belonged to nontyphoidal Salmonella serovarieties. Thirty-four individuals were found to be coinfected with Plasmodium falciparum and bacteria. Five (14.7%) of these coinfections were with Salmonella, all in children aged <5 years. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that most of the Salmonella and Staphylococcus isolates were multidrug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrates that bacteria were commonly recovered from febrile patients with or without malaria in this location. Focused and extended epidemiological studies are needed for the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccines that have the potential to prevent a major cause of severe community-acquired febrile diseases in our locality.

Curcumin-loaded self-emulsifying drug delivery system (cu-SEDDS): a promising approach for the control of primary pathogen and secondary bacterial infections in cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis being a neglected tropical disease (NTD) faces several challenges in chemotherapy. If infected with secondary bacterial infections, the treatment regime of cutaneous ulcers in cutaneous leishmaniasis is further complicated which usually require two or more than two chemotherapeutic agents for healing. In the current study, seven curcumin-loaded self-emulsifying drug delivery system (cu-SEDDS) formulations (namely F1-F7) were prepared by mixing different excipients (oils, surfactants, and co-solvents) through stirring (vortex) and sonication. The formulations were characterized regarding their droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential by zeta sizer. The cu-SEDDS formulations displayed different sizes ranging from 32.4 up to 80.0 nm. The zeta potential of the formulations ranged from - 1.56 up to - 4.8. The antileishmanial activities of the cu-SEDDS formulations in terms of IC50 against Leishmania tropica ranged from 0.19 up to 0.37 µg/ml. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of these formulations against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae were in the range of 48-62 µg/ml. The hemolysis caused by formulations was 1-2%. The spreading potential of the formulations (F1 and F5) over damaged skin model was remarkable. These results suggest that cu-SEDDS further enhanced the broad spectrum antileishmanial and antibacterial profile of curcumin and could be used for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis and its associated secondary infections.

Astrogliopathology in the infectious insults of the brain.

Astroglia, a heterogeneous type of neuroglia, play key homeostatic functions in the central nervous system (CNS) and represent an important defence system. Impaired homeostatic capacity of astrocytes manifests in diseases and this is mirrored in various astrocyte-based pathological features including reactive astrogliosis, astrodegeneration with astroglial atrophy and pathological remodelling of astrocytes. All of these manifestations are most prominently associated with infectious insults, mediated by bacteria, protozoa and viruses. Here we focus onto neurotropic viruses such as tick-borne encephalitis (TBEV) and Zika virus (ZIKV), both belonging to Flaviviridae and both causing severe neurological impairments. We argue that astrocytes provide a route through which neurotropic infectious agents attack the CNS, since they are anatomically associated with the blood-brain barrier and exhibit aerobic glycolysis, a metabolic specialisation of highly morphologically dynamic cells, which may provide a suitable metabolic milieu for proliferation of infectious agents, including viral bodies.

Sand crickets (Gryllus firmus) have low susceptibility to entomopathogenic nematodes and their pathogenic bacteria.

The entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema scapterisci, a specialist parasite of crickets, has been successfully used to combat the southern mole cricket, Neoscapteriscus borellii, which is an invasive pest of turf grass. As an entomopathogenic nematode, S. scapterisci causes rapid death of the insects it infects and uses bacteria to facilitate its parasitism. However, our understanding of the relative contributions of the nematode, S. scapterisci, and its bacterial symbiont, Xenorhabdus innexi, to parasitism remains limited. Here we utilized the sand cricket, Gryllus firmus, as a model host to evaluate the contributions of the EPNs S. scapterisci and S. carpocapsae, as well as their symbiotic bacteria, X. innexi and X. nematophila, respectively, to the virulence of the nematode-bacterial complex. We found that G. firmus has reduced susceptibility to infection from both S. scapterisci and the closely related generalist parasite S. carpocapsae, but that S. scapterisci is much more virulent than S. carpocapsae. Further, we found that N. borellii has reduced susceptibility to X. nematophila, and that G. firmus has reduced susceptibility to X. nematophila, X. innexi, and Serratia marcescens, much more so than other insects that have been studied. We found that the reduced susceptibility of G. firmus to bacterial infection is dependent on development, with adults being less susceptible to infection than nymphs. Our data provide evidence that unlike other EPNs, the virulence of S. scapterisci to crickets is dependent on the nematode rather than the bacterial symbiont that it carries and we speculate that S. scapterisci may be evolving independence from X. innexi.

Global trends in infectious diseases of swine.

Pork accounts for more than one-third of meat produced worldwide and is an important component of global food security, agricultural economies, and trade. Infectious diseases are among the primary constraints to swine production, and the globalization of the swine industry has contributed to the emergence and spread of pathogens. Despite the importance of infectious diseases to animal health and the stability and productivity of the global swine industry, pathogens of swine have never been reviewed at a global scale. Here, we build a holistic global picture of research on swine pathogens to enhance preparedness and understand patterns of emergence and spread. By conducting a scoping review of more than 57,000 publications across 50 years, we identify priority pathogens globally and regionally, and characterize geographic and temporal trends in research priorities. Of the 40 identified pathogens, publication rates for eight pathogens increased faster than overall trends, suggesting that these pathogens may be emerging or constitute an increasing threat. We also compared regional patterns of pathogen prioritization in the context of policy differences, history of outbreaks, and differing swine health challenges faced in regions where swine production has become more industrialized. We documented a general increasing trend in importance of zoonotic pathogens and show that structural changes in the industry related to intensive swine production shift pathogen prioritization. Multinational collaboration networks were strongly shaped by region, colonial ties, and pig trade networks. This review represents the most comprehensive overview of research on swine infectious diseases to date.

Occurrence and diversity of arthropod-transmitted pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in western Austria, and possible vertical (transplacental) transmission of Hepatozoon canis.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid species in Austria, and it is a well-known carrier of many pathogens of medical and veterinary concern. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence and diversity of protozoan, bacterial and filarial parasites transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods in a red fox population in western Austria. Blood (n = 351) and spleen (n = 506) samples from foxes were examined by PCR and sequencing and the following pathogens were identified: Babesia canis, Babesia cf. microti (syn. Theileria annae), Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. and Bartonella rochalimae. Blood was shown to be more suitable for detection of Babesia cf. microti, whilst the spleen tissue was better for detection of H. canis than blood. Moreover, extremely low genetic variability of H. canis and its relatively low prevalence rate observed in this study may suggest that the parasite has only recently been introduced in the sampled area. Furthermore, the data presented here demonstrates, for the first time, the possible vertical transmission of H. canis from an infected vixen to the offspring, and this could explain the very high prevalence in areas considered free of its main tick vector(s).

[Effects of the environment on health of feral pigeons (Columba livia)]. / Umwelteinflüsse und Gesundheitszustand bei Strassentauben (Columba livia).

We examined 80 feral pigeons and their fecal samples from two feral pigeon lofts of the "Pigeon Action of Basel" (Switzerland) for different pathogens. The tested material harbored four pathogenic agents transmissible to humans (Chlamydia spp., Salmonella spec., Campylobacter jejuni, Cryptococcus neoformans) In addition several pathogens were found which are no zoonotic agents but potentially pathogenic for the pigeons themselves, such as Trichomonas gallinae, coccidia, helminths, ectoparasites and fungi. The number of pathogens and parasites detected in the fecal samples varied significantly between the two localities. The pigeons of the two investigated breeding flocks differed in nutritional status and the incidence of two species of feather lice, Columbicola columbae and Campanulotes bidentatus compar. The prevalence of Trichomonas gallinae between juveniles and adults was not significantly different but juveniles exhibited significantly heavier infestation if infected. Individuals with a good nutritional status tend to show heavier infestation with Trichomonas gallinae compared to birds with moderate or poor nutritional status. Birds with a poor nutritional status tend to suffer from a heavier infestation with the feather louse C. columbae, and birds with a good nutritional status show significant heavier infestation with C. bidentatus compar. It was remarkable that one of the two investigated breeding populations almost gave up its breeding activity for two years because of the loss of its familiar food source. Nevertheless, this population showed a better nutritional status than the population without restrictions in the acquisition of food. This fact could be interpreted by the existence of a biological control mechanism for suppression of the reproduction in degraded environmental conditions to ensure the survival of the adults. If this assumption is correct, the feeding of feral pigeons by animal lovers possibly causes impairment of pigeon's health in consequence of continuation of the breeding activity in spite of declined living conditions in the city.

Scabies mites alter the skin microbiome and promote growth of opportunistic pathogens in a porcine model.

BACKGROUND: The resident skin microbiota plays an important role in restricting pathogenic bacteria, thereby protecting the host. Scabies mites (Sarcoptes scabiei) are thought to promote bacterial infections by breaching the skin barrier and excreting molecules that inhibit host innate immune responses. Epidemiological studies in humans confirm increased incidence of impetigo, generally caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, secondary to the epidermal infestation with the parasitic mite. It is therefore possible that mite infestation could alter the healthy skin microbiota making way for the opportunistic pathogens. A longitudinal study to test this hypothesis in humans is near impossible due to ethical reasons. In a porcine model we generated scabies infestations closely resembling the disease manifestation in humans and investigated the scabies associated changes in the skin microbiota over the course of a mite infestation. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In a 21 week trial, skin scrapings were collected from pigs infected with S. scabies var. suis and scabies-free control animals. A total of 96 skin scrapings were collected before, during infection and after acaricide treatment, and analyzed by bacterial 16S rDNA tag-encoded FLX-titanium amplicon pyrosequencing. We found significant changes in the epidermal microbiota, in particular a dramatic increase in Staphylococcus correlating with the onset of mite infestation in animals challenged with scabies mites. This increase persisted beyond treatment from mite infection and healing of skin. Furthermore, the staphylococci population shifted from the commensal S. hominis on the healthy skin prior to scabies mite challenge to S. chromogenes, which is increasingly recognized as being pathogenic, coinciding with scabies infection in pigs. In contrast, all animals in the scabies-free cohort remained relatively free of Staphylococcus throughout the trial. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first experimental in vivo evidence supporting previous assumptions that establishment of pathogens follow scabies infection. Our findings provide an explanation for a biologically important aspect of the disease pathogenesis. The methods developed from this pig trial will serve as a guide to analyze human clinical samples. Studies building on this will offer implications for development of novel intervention strategies against the mites and the secondary infections.

Analysis of a summary network of co-infection in humans reveals that parasites interact most via shared resources.

Simultaneous infection by multiple parasite species (viruses, bacteria, helminths, protozoa or fungi) is commonplace. Most reports show co-infected humans to have worse health than those with single infections. However, we have little understanding of how co-infecting parasites interact within human hosts. We used data from over 300 published studies to construct a network that offers the first broad indications of how groups of co-infecting parasites tend to interact. The network had three levels comprising parasites, the resources they consume and the immune responses they elicit, connected by potential, observed and experimentally proved links. Pairs of parasite species had most potential to interact indirectly through shared resources, rather than through immune responses or other parasites. In addition, the network comprised 10 tightly knit groups, eight of which were associated with particular body parts, and seven of which were dominated by parasite-resource links. Reported co-infection in humans is therefore structured by physical location within the body, with bottom-up, resource-mediated processes most often influencing how, where and which co-infecting parasites interact. The many indirect interactions show how treating an infection could affect other infections in co-infected patients, but the compartmentalized structure of the network will limit how far these indirect effects are likely to spread.

Equine disease surveillance: quarterly summary.

Equine infectious anaemia in Europe Equine herpesvirus in the UK Summary of surveillance testing, July to September 2012 These are among matters discussed in the quarterly equine disease surveillance report for July to September 2012, prepared by Defra, the Animal Health Trust and the British Equine Veterinary Association.

Investigation of zoonotic infections among Auckland Zoo staff: 1991-2010.

Investigation was undertaken to assess the occurrence of zoonotic infection among staff at Auckland Zoological Park, New Zealand, in 1991, 2002 and 2010. Serial cross-sectional health surveys in 1991, 2002 and 2010 comprising a health questionnaire, and serological, immunological and microbiological analysis for a range of potential zoonotic infections were performed. Laboratory results for zoo animals were also reviewed for 2004-2010 to assess the occurrence of potential zoonotic infections. Veterinary clinic, animal handler, grounds, maintenance and administrative staff participated in the surveys, with 49, 42 and 46 participants in the 1991, 2002 and 2010 surveys, respectively (29% of total zoo staff in 2010). A small number of staff reported work-related infections, including erysipelas (1), giardiasis (1) and campylobacteriosis (1). The seroprevalence of antibodies to hepatitis A virus and Toxoplasma gondii closely reflected those in the Auckland community. No carriage of hepatitis B virus (HBV) was detected, and most of those with anti-HBV antibodies had been vaccinated. Few staff had serological evidence of past leptospiral infection. Three veterinary clinic staff had raised Chlamydophila psittaci antibodies, all < 1 : 160 indicating past exposure. Two staff (in 1991) had asymptomatic carriage of Giardia lamblia and one person (in 2010) had a dermatophyte infection. After 1991, positive tests indicating exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis were < 10%, comparable to the general New Zealand population. Zoo animals had infections with potential zoonotic agents, including G. lamblia, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and T. gondii, although the occurrence was low. Zoonotic agents pose an occupational risk to zoo workers. While there was evidence of some zoonotic transmission at Auckland Zoo, this was uncommon and risks appear to be adequately managed under current policies and procedures. Nevertheless, ongoing assessment of risk factors is needed as environmental, human and animal disease and management factors change. Policies and procedures should be reviewed periodically in conjunction with disease monitoring results for both animals and staff to minimise zoonotic transmission.

Infección experimental de aislados humanos de Blastocystis sp. en ratones inmunosuprimidos con dexamentasona / Experimental infection using human isolates of Blastocystis sp. in dexamethasone immunosurpressed mice

Blastocystis sp. es un protozoario controversial en cuanto a su papel patogénico, asociado a enfermedad gastrointestinal, con alta prevalencia. A fin de evaluar signos, síntomas y hallazgos de laboratorio producidos por Blastocystis sp., ratones inmunosuprimidos con dexametasona fueron infectados con morfologías del parásito obtenidos de pacientes sintomáticos y asintomáticos. Los parásitos se aislaron empleando gradiente de densidad con lymphoprep™, se realizó semicuantificación de las morfologías presentes en las muestra de heces, y se inocularon 1,6 × 105 parásitos en ratones Balb/c, vía intragástrica. En heces de pacientes sintomáticos se encontraron seis veces más vacuolares que granulares, mientras que en asintomáticos la relación fue apenas dos veces mayor. Los síntomas más frecuentes en los pacientes fueron: flatulencia (85%), dolor de cabeza(62%), dolor abdominal (55%), fiebre (30%) y estreñimiento (8%). La semicuantificación de parásitos por campo en humanos no encontró relación directa entre carga parasitaria y sintomatología gastrointestinal, mientras que en la cuantificación de parásitos por gramo de heces si existió. Los ratones presentaron signos variables luego de la infección, todos aquellos infectados con muestras de pacientes sintomáticos presentaron signos, mientras que solo algunos de los infectados con muestras de pacientes asintomáticos los desarrollaron. Se demostró que no existe relación estadísticamente significativa (p= 0,8) entre la morfología del parásito y los signos manifestados por el ratón; sin embargo hubo una relación estadísticamente significativa (p=0,02) entre las formas vacuolares del parásito y la aparición de síntomas en los pacientes. Se concluye que Blastocystis sp. tiene capacidad de producir signos sugestivos de patología en ratones.

Blastocystis sp. is a controversial protozoan in terms of its pathogenic role associated with high-prevalence gastrointestinal disease. To evaluate signs, symptoms and laboratory findings produced by Blastocystis sp., dexamethasone immunosuppressed mice were infected with parasite morphologies obtained from symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. The parasites were isolated using density gradient with lymphoprep™, semi-quantification of the morphologies present in the stool sample was performed and 1.6 × 105 parasites were inoculated into Balb/c mice, intragastrically. In the faeces of symptomatic patients, vacuolar morphology was six times greater than granular morphology, whereas the ratio in asymptomatic patients was only two times greater. The most common symptoms in patients were flatulence (85%), headache (62%), abdominal pain (55%), fever (30%) and constipation (8%). The semi-quantification of parasites per field in humans evidenced no direct relationship between parasite burden and gastrointestinal symptoms, while in parasite quantification per gram of feces, a direct relationship was found. The mice showed variable signs after infection; all those infected with samples from symptomatic patients showed signs, while only some of those infected with samples from asymptomatic patients developed them. It was demonstrated that no statistically significant (p = 0.8) relationship exists between the morphology of the parasite and the signs manifested by the mouse; nevertheless, there was a statistically significant (p = 0.02) relationship between the vacuolar forms of the parasite and onset of symptoms in patients. Conclusions are that Blastocystis sp. is capable of producing signs suggestive of pathology in mice.

Analyzing microbial disease at high resolution: following the fate of the bacterium during infection.

The study of bacterial pathogens has historically been viewed with a wide lens, providing a picture of how bacterial populations act as groups, but with insufficient resolution to see how microorganisms act as individuals. For most bacterial pathogens, we do not know the minimal number of microbes that initiate infection in a particular organ site, the number that spread outside the site of initial colonization, and how many persist over time. Recent studies have begun to shed light on these points, and the development of new techniques has dramatically increased the ability of researchers to interrogate these problems. With new approaches, the field of bacterial pathogenesis is on the verge of understanding the role and fate of individual bacteria during infection.

Tissue microbiology provides a coherent picture of infection.

The vertebrate host represents an extraordinarily complex and heterogenous environment which pathogenic bacteria of different types able to colonize and infect. This implies that all contributory elements of an infected tissue type or intact host are pre-requisites for full understanding of bacterial pathogenesis. Within this context, intravital techniques allow such studies of infection under realistic conditions within the live host, and with improved detection methods another level of understanding is attained. Here we define this field as tissue microbiology, with its focus placed on monitoring and mimicking host-pathogen interaction within the dynamic micro-ecology significant for infectious niches in the live host. Such all-inclusive approaches promise to more coherently define relevant interactions and angles for disease intervention.

From host immunity to pathogen invasion: the effects of helminth coinfection on the dynamics of microparasites.

Concurrent infections with multiple parasites are ubiquitous in nature. Coinfecting parasites can interact with one another in a variety of ways, including through the host's immune system via mechanisms such as immune trade-offs and immunosuppression. These within-host immune processes mediating interactions among parasites have been described in detail, but how they scale up to determine disease dynamic patterns at the population level is only beginning to be explored. In this review, we use helminth-microparasite coinfection as a model for examining how within-host immunological effects may influence the ecological outcome of microparasitic diseases, with a specific focus on disease invasion. The current literature on coinfection between helminths and major microparasitic diseases includes many studies documenting the effects of helminths on individual host responses to microparasites. In many cases, the observed host responses map directly onto parameters relevant for quantifying disease dynamics; however, there have been few attempts at integrating data on individual-level effects into theoretical models to extrapolate from the individual to the population level. Moreover, there is considerable variability in the particular combination of disease parameters affected by helminths across different microparasite systems. We develop a conceptual framework identifying some potential sources of such variability: Pathogen persistence and severity, and resource availability to hosts. We also generate testable hypotheses regarding diseases and the environmental contexts when the effects of helminths on microparasite dynamics should be most pronounced. Finally, we use a case study of helminth and mycobacterial coinfection in the African buffalo to illustrate both progress and challenges in understanding the population-level consequences of within-host immunological interactions, and conclude with suggestions for future research that will help improve our understanding of the effects of coinfection on dynamics of infectious diseases.

Clinicopathological features and the practice of diagnosing infectious cutaneous granulomas in Egypt.

OBJECTIVE: To present the clinicopathological features and the practice of diagnosing infectious cutaneous granulomas in Egypt. METHODS: This study included all cases diagnosed with infectious cutaneous granuloma during the period 2004-2010 at Al-Hussein University Hospital, Cairo. Clinical and histological features were recorded, along with the positivity rate (PR) for each diagnostic method. RESULTS: This study included 233 cases (150 males and 83 females) with a mean age of 47 years. Three groups of infection were recorded: bacterial infections (73.8% Mycobacterium and 3.9% non-Mycobacterium), parasitic infestations (16.7%), and deep fungal infections (5.6%). Tuberculosis cases formed the largest granuloma group (40.8%), followed by leprosy (31.7%) and leishmaniasis (15.9%). A total of 36 cases were diagnosed by direct smear (PR 15.5%), 61 cases by skin biopsy (PR 31.0%), 84 cases by intradermal test (PR 63.6%), 26 cases by serological tests (PR 60.5%), 18 cases by tissue culture (PR 69.2%), and eight cases by PCR (PR 100%). CONCLUSIONS: Mycobacterial infections constitute the most common infectious cutaneous granulomas among Egyptians. Routine methods such as direct smear, skin biopsy, and intradermal tests remain the most commonly applied and economical methods for diagnosis in developing countries, although specific methods such as tissue culture and PCR have higher positivity rates in the diagnosis.

Live cell fluorescence microscopy to study microbial pathogenesis.

Advances in microscopy and fluorescent probes provide new insight into the nanometer-scale biochemistry governing the interactions between eukaryotic cells and pathogens. When combined with mathematical modelling, these new technologies hold the promise of qualitative, quantitative and predictive descriptions of these pathways. Using the light microscope to study the spatial and temporal relationships between pathogens, host cells and their respective biochemical machinery requires an appreciation for how fluorescent probes and imaging devices function. This review summarizes how live cell fluorescence microscopy with common instruments can provide quantitative insight into the cellular and molecular functions of hosts and pathogens.

Criptosporidiose: uma revisão sobre a sua implicação na conservação dos mamíferos aquáticos / Cryptosporidiosis: a review about its implication in conservation of aquatic mammals

A criptosporidiose é uma doença parasitária emergente que vem sendo relatada em diversas espécies de mamíferos, incluindo os aquáticos. Esta revisão trata da epidemiologia da infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. em mamíferos aquáticos. A idade dos animais, dose infectante e o estado imunológico podem influenciar na apresentação clínica, e quando associados a outros patógenos pode levar o animal a óbito. A contaminação dos recursos hídricos constitui um dos principais meios de disseminação do parasito, que foi identificado por diferentes técnicas de análise. A adequação das estruturas de saneamento, utilização de métodos apropriados para a inativação dos oocistos e garantia das normas de higiene pessoal constituem algumas das maneiras recomendadas para minimizar a disseminação do Cryptosporidium entre os mamíferos aquáticos.

Cryptosporidiosis is an emerging parasitic disease that has been related in several mammal species, including the aquatic ones. This review covers the epidemiology infection by Cryptosporidium spp. in aquatic mammals. The age of the animal, infecting dose and immunological state can influence on the clinical presentation, and when associated with other pathogen, can lead the animal to death. The water supply contamination is water supply is one of the major ways of the pathogen dissemination, which was being identified by different techniques of laboratorial analysis. The adequacy of sanitation structures, the use of appropriate method to inactivate the oocysts and the assurance of personal hygiene norms are some of the recommended way to minimize the dissemination of Cryptosporidium among aquatic mammals.