Vav independently regulates synaptic growth and plasticity through distinct actin-based processes.

Modulation of presynaptic actin dynamics is fundamental to synaptic growth and functional plasticity; yet the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain largely unknown. At Drosophila NMJs, the presynaptic Rac1-SCAR pathway mediates BMP-induced receptor macropinocytosis to inhibit BMP growth signaling. Here, we show that the Rho-type GEF Vav acts upstream of Rac1 to inhibit synaptic growth through macropinocytosis. We also present evidence that Vav-Rac1-SCAR signaling has additional roles in tetanus-induced synaptic plasticity. Presynaptic inactivation of Vav signaling pathway components, but not regulators of macropinocytosis, impairs post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) and enhances synaptic depression depending on external Ca2+ concentration. Interfering with the Vav-Rac1-SCAR pathway also impairs mobilization of reserve pool (RP) vesicles required for tetanus-induced synaptic plasticity. Finally, treatment with an F-actin-stabilizing drug completely restores RP mobilization and plasticity defects in Vav mutants. We propose that actin-regulatory Vav-Rac1-SCAR signaling independently regulates structural and functional presynaptic plasticity by driving macropinocytosis and RP mobilization, respectively.

Essential Role of CRIM1 on Endometrial Receptivity in Goat.

In domestic ruminants, endometrial receptivity is related to successful pregnancy and economic efficiency. Despite several molecules having been reported in the past regarding endometrial receptivity regulation, much regarding the mechanism of endometrial receptivity regulation remains unknown due to the complex nature of the trait. In this work, we demonstrated that the cysteine-rich transmembrane bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) regulator 1 (CRIM1) served as a novel regulator in the regulation of goat endometrial receptivity in vitro. Our results showed that hormones and IFN-τ increased the expression of CRIM1 in goat endometrial epithelial cells (EECs). Knockdown of CRIM1 via specific shRNA hindered cell proliferation, cell adhesion and prostaglandins (PGs) secretion and thus derailed normal endometrial receptivity. We further confirmed that receptivity defect phenotypes due to CRIM1 interference were restored by ATG7 overexpression in EECs while a loss of ATG7 further impaired receptivity phenotypes. Moreover, our results showed that changing the expression of ATG7 affected the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Moreover, mR-143-5p was shown to be a potential upstream factor of CRIM1-regulated endometrial receptivity in EECs. Overall, these results suggest that CRIM1, as the downstream target of miR-143-5p, has effects on ATG7-dependent autophagy, regulating cell proliferation, cell adhesion and PG secretion, and provides a new target for the diagnosis and treatment of early pregnancy failure and for improving the success rates of artificial reproduction.

Role of bone morphogenetic protein-9 in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-9 has been reported to regulate energy balance in vivo. However, the mechanisms underlying BMP9-mediated regulation of energy balance remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the role of BMP9 in energy metabolism. In the current study, we found that hepatic BMP9 expression was down-regulated in insulin resistance (IR) mice and in patients who are diabetic. In mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD), the overexpression of hepatic BMP9 improved glucose tolerance and IR. The expression of gluconeogenic genes was down-regulated, whereas the level of insulin signaling molecule phosphorylation was increased in the livers of Adenovirus-BMP9-treated mice and glucosamine-treated hepatocytes. Furthermore, BMP9 overexpression ameliorated triglyceride accumulation and inhibited the expression of lipogenic genes in both human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells treated with a fatty acid mixture as well as the livers of HFD-fed mice. In hepatocytes isolated from sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c knockout mice, the effects of BMP9 were ablated. Mechanistically, BMP9 inhibited SREBP-1c expression through the inhibition of liver X receptor response element 1 activity in the SREBP-1c promoter. Taken together, our results show that BMP9 is an important regulator of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism.-Yang, M., Liang, Z., Yang, M., Jia, Y., Yang, G., He, Y., Li, X., Gu, H. F., Zheng, H., Zhu, Z., Li, L. Role of bone morphogenetic protein-9 in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism.

Bone morphogenetic proteins and inner ear development.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are the largest subfamily of the transforming growth factor-ß superfamily, and they play important roles in the development of numerous organs, including the inner ear. The inner ear is a relatively small organ but has a highly complex structure and is involved in both hearing and balance. Here, we discuss BMPs and BMP signaling pathways and then focus on the role of BMP signal pathway regulation in the development of the inner ear and the implications this has for the treatment of human hearing loss and balance dysfunction.

Bone morphogenetic proteins and inner ear development / 浙江大学学报（英文版）（B辑：生物医学和生物技术）

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are the largest subfamily of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily, and they play important roles in the development of numerous organs, including the inner ear. The inner ear is a relatively small organ but has a highly complex structure and is involved in both hearing and balance. Here, we discuss BMPs and BMP signaling pathways and then focus on the role of BMP signal pathway regulation in the development of the inner ear and the implications this has for the treatment of human hearing loss and balance dysfunction.

Crim1 is required for maintenance of the ocular lens epithelium.

The development and growth of the vertebrate ocular lens is dependent on the regulated proliferation of an anterior monolayer of epithelial cells, and their subsequent differentiation into elongate fiber cells. The growth factor rich ocular media that bathes the lens mediates these cellular processes, and their respective intracellular signaling pathways are in turn regulated to ensure that the proper lens architecture is maintained. Recent studies have proposed that Cysteine Rich Motor Neuron 1 (Crim1), a transmembrane protein involved in organogenesis of many tissues, might influence cell adhesion, polarity and proliferation in the lens by regulating integrin-signaling. Here, we characterise the lens and eyes of the Crim1KST264 mutant mice, and show that the loss of Crim1 function in the ocular tissues results in inappropriate differentiation of the lens epithelium into fiber cells. Furthermore, restoration of Crim1 levels in just the lens tissue of Crim1KST264 mice is sufficient to ameliorate most of the dysgenesis observed in the mutant animals. Based on our findings, we propose that tight regulation of Crim1 activity is required for maintenance of the lens epithelium, and its depletion leads to ectopic differentiation into fiber cells, dramatically altering lens structure and ultimately leading to microphthalmia and aphakia.

Bone Morphogenetic Proteins in Vascular Homeostasis and Disease.

It is well established that control of vascular morphogenesis and homeostasis is regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), Delta-like 4 (Dll4), angiopoietin, and ephrin signaling. It has become clear that signaling by bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which have a long history of studies in bone and early heart development, are also essential for regulating vascular function. Indeed, mutations that cause deregulated BMP signaling are linked to two human vascular diseases, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia and pulmonary arterial hypertension. These observations are corroborated by data obtained with vascular cells in cell culture and in mouse models. BMPs are required for normal endothelial cell differentiation and for venous/arterial and lymphatic specification. In adult life, BMP signaling orchestrates neo-angiogenesis as well as vascular inflammation, remodeling, and calcification responses to shear and oxidative stress. This review emphasizes the pivotal role of BMPs in the vascular system, based on studies of mouse models and human vascular disorders.

RGM regulates BMP-mediated secondary axis formation in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis.

Patterning of the metazoan dorsoventral axis is mediated by a complex interplay of BMP signaling regulators. Repulsive guidance molecule (RGM) is a conserved BMP coreceptor that has not been implicated in axis specification. We show that NvRGM is a key positive regulator of BMP signaling during secondary axis establishment in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. NvRGM regulates first the generation and later the shape of a BMP-dependent Smad1/5/8 gradient with peak activity on the side opposite the NvBMP/NvRGM/NvChordin expression domain. Full knockdown of Smad1/5/8 signaling blocks the formation of endodermal structures, the mesenteries, and the establishment of bilateral symmetry, while altering the gradient through partial NvRGM or NvBMP knockdown shifts the boundaries of asymmetric gene expression and the positioning of the mesenteries along the secondary axis. These findings provide insight into the diversification of axis specification mechanisms and identify a previously unrecognized role for RGM in BMP-mediated axial patterning.

Emdogain-regulated gene expression in palatal fibroblasts requires TGF-ßRI kinase signaling.

Genome-wide microarrays have suggested that Emdogain regulates TGF-ß target genes in gingival and palatal fibroblasts. However, definitive support for this contention and the extent to which TGF-ß signaling contributes to the effects of Emdogain has remained elusive. We therefore studied the role of the TGF-ß receptor I (TGF-ßRI) kinase to mediate the effect of Emdogain on palatal fibroblasts. Palatal fibroblasts were exposed to Emdogain with and without the inhibitor for TGF-ßRI kinase, SB431542. Emdogain caused 39 coding genes to be differentially expressed in palatal fibroblasts by microarray analysis (p<0.05; >10-fold). Importantly, in the presence of the TGF-ßRI kinase inhibitor SB431542, Emdogain failed to cause any significant changes in gene expression. Consistent with this mechanism, three independent TGF-ßRI kinase inhibitors and a TGF-ß neutralizing antibody abrogated the increased expression of IL-11, a selected Emdogain target gene. The MAPK inhibitors SB203580 and U0126 lowered the impact of Emdogain on IL-11 expression. The data support that TGF-ßRI kinase activity is necessary to mediate the effects of Emdogain on gene expression in vitro.

Diversity is in my veins: role of bone morphogenetic protein signaling during venous morphogenesis in zebrafish illustrates the heterogeneity within endothelial cells.

Endothelial cells are a highly diverse group of cells which display distinct cellular responses to exogenous stimuli. Although the aptly named vascular endothelial growth factor-A signaling pathway is hailed as the most important signaling input for endothelial cells, additional factors also participate in regulating diverse aspects of endothelial behaviors and functions. Given this heterogeneity, these additional factors seem to play a critical role in creating a custom-tailored environment to regulate behaviors and functions of distinct subgroups of endothelial cells. For instance, molecular cues that modulate morphogenesis of arterial vascular beds can be distinct from those that govern morphogenesis of venous vascular beds. Recently, we have found that bone morphogenetic protein signaling selectively promotes angiogenesis from venous vascular beds without eliciting similar responses from arterial vascular beds in zebrafish, indicating that bone morphogenetic protein signaling functions as a context-dependent regulator during vascular morphogenesis. In this review, we will provide an overview of the molecular mechanisms that underlie proangiogenic effects of bone morphogenetic protein signaling on venous vascular beds in the context of endothelial heterogeneity and suggest a more comprehensive picture of the molecular mechanisms of vascular morphogenesis during development.

Dissecting the differentiation process of the preplacodal ectoderm in zebrafish.

BACKGROUND: The preplacodal region (PPR) is a region of specialized ectoderm at the border of neural and nonneural ectoderm (NNE). Coordinated Bmp, Fgf, and Wnt signals are known to drive PPR development; however, the underlying mechanism is unknown. RESULTS: We identified key components involved in PPR differentiation. The mesoderm/marginal Wnts at the early gastrula stage trigger differentiation by allowing the adjacent NNE border cells to start adopting caudal PPR fates; otherwise, the development of caudal PPR identity is hindered due to the persistent presence of gata3 mRNA. The caudal PPR fate dominates when foxi1 expression is enhanced at the late gastrula stage, and depleting Foxi1 after 6 hours postfertilization (hpf) reduces the otic-epibranchial placodal domain. When the Gata3 level is manipulated at the fertilized egg stage or near 6 hpf, the lens is always affected. In establishing PPR polarity, both Gata3 and Foxi1 inhibit Bmp signaling, whereas Foxi1 inhibits, but Gata3 enhances, Fgf sensitivity of the PPR cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals that in zebrafish, (1) the PPR at the shield stage may enter a developmental state when the PPR cells preferentially adopt a particular placodal fate and (2) a network of genetically linked factors, including Wnt/beta-catenin, Fgfr, Bmp, Gata3, and Foxi1, direct the process of PPR differentiation.

Expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2, 4, and related components of the BMP signaling pathway in the mouse uterus during the estrous cycle.

The objective was to investigate the expression of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family members in the mouse uterus during the estrous cycle by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemistry. Uterine samples from Swiss ICR mice were collected and dissected free of surrounding tissue. One uterine horn was snap frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after collection and stored at -80 °C for RNA extraction, and the other was fixed in 40 mg/ml paraformaldehyde at room temperature for immunolocalization of BMP2 protein. Real-time PCR analysis showed that the expression level of Bmp2 was significantly higher at proestrus than at estrus and metestrus (P<0.05). The relative abundance of Bmp4 exhibited significant fluctuations, but there were no statistically significant differences between the expression levels of Bmp2 and Bmp4 (P>0.05). The expression levels of Bmpr1a and Bmpr2 remained unchanged during estrous cycles. However, the level of Bmpr1b mRNA decreased significantly at estrus (P<0.05), increasing subsequently at metestrus. Furthermore, the level of Bmpr1b mRNA was significantly lower than those of Bmpr1a and Bmpr2 mRNA at the corresponding stages (P<0.05). All three receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads) detected were differentially expressed in the mouse uterus and the expression levels of Smad1 and Smad5 were significantly higher than that of Smad8 (P<0.05). In addition, the expression level of Smad4 did not change substantially throughout the estrous cycle. Immunohistochemical experiments revealed that BMP2 protein was differentially expressed and localized mainly in the uterine luminal and glandular epithelial cells throughout the estrous cycle. In conclusion, our results provide information about the variation in the mRNA levels of Bmp2 and Bmp4 and related components of the BMP signaling pathway. The data provide quantitative and useful information about the roles of endometrial BMP proposed and demonstrated by others, such as the degradation and remodeling of the endometrium.

Regulation of the transforming growth factor ß pathway by reversible ubiquitylation.

The transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) signalling pathway plays a central role during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis. It regulates gene transcription through a signalling cascade from cell surface receptors to intracellular SMAD transcription factors and their nuclear cofactors. The extent, duration and potency of signalling in response to TGFß cytokines are intricately regulated by complex biochemical processes. The corruption of these regulatory processes results in aberrant TGFß signalling and leads to numerous human diseases, including cancer. Reversible ubiquitylation of pathway components is a key regulatory process that plays a critical role in ensuring a balanced response to TGFß signals. Many studies have investigated the mechanisms by which various E3 ubiquitin ligases regulate the turnover and activity of TGFß pathway components by ubiquitylation. Moreover, recent studies have shed new light into their regulation by deubiquitylating enzymes. In this report, we provide an overview of current understanding of the regulation of TGFß signalling by E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitylases.

Crim1 has an essential role in glycogen trophoblast cell and sinusoidal-trophoblast giant cell development in the placenta.

Normal placental development and function is essential for fetal growth of eutherian mammals. Mutational studies have shown that numerous growth factors are required for placental development and differentiation of placental lineages. Here, using a gene-trap mutant mouse line, Crim1(KST264), we show that Crim1 is essential for murine placental development. Crim1 is a developmentally expressed, trans-membrane regulator of growth factor activity. Crim1(KST264/KST264) mutant placentae displayed hypoplasia from 13.5 dpc, and altered structure from 15.5 dpc, including alterations in cell number in both the junctional and labyrinth zones. Using the reporter gene from the Crim1(KST264) allele, we found that Crim1 is expressed in multiple cell types of the placenta, including strong expression in the spongiotrophoblast cells of the junctional zone. In the junctional zone of Crim1(KST264/KST264) placentae, there was an increase in the glycogen trophoblast cells adjacent to the spongiotrophoblast cells. In the labyrinth zone, we found a decrease in the density of sinusoidal-trophoblast giant cells. Our findings show that Crim1 is required for placental development, and is necessary for the proper differentiation of sinusoidal-trophoblast giant cells and glycogen trophoblast cells.

Immunohistological localization of BMP-2, BMP-7, and their receptors in knee joints with focal cartilage lesions.

INTRODUCTION: Although it is well known that BMP-2 and BMP-7 play significant roles in cartilage metabolism, data about intra-articular expression and localization of these proteins and their receptors in humans are rare. METHODS: Biopsies of synovia and debrided cartilage were taken in patients undergoing autologous chondrocyte implantation. Expression of BMP-2, BMP-7, and their receptors BMPR-1A, BMPR-1B and BMPR-2 were semiquantitatively evaluated by immunohistological staining. RESULTS: BMP-7 was equally highly expressed in all cartilage and synovial biopsies. Increased levels of BMPR-1A, but not of BMPR-1B, and BMPR-2, were found in all synovial and 47% of all cartilage samples (P = 0.002). BMP-2 was positively scored in 47% of all cartilage and 40% of all synovial specimens. Defect size, KOSS, Henderson or Kellgren-Lawrence score did not statistically significant correlate with the expression of the analyzed proteins or Mankin and Pritzker scores. Duration of symptoms and localization of lesions were associated with KOSS (P < 0.02), but there was no influence of these parameters on protein expression. CONCLUSIONS: BMP-2, BMP-7, and BMPR-1A were expressed in cartilage and synovia of knees with focal cartilage lesions. Although defect localization and duration of symptoms decisively influence KOSS, there was no associated alteration of protein expression observed.

Bone morphogenic protein: an elixir for bone grafting--a review.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are multifunctional growth factors that belong to the transforming growth factor beta superfamily. This literature review focuses on the molecular biology of BMPs, their mechanism of action, and subsequent applications. It also discusses uses of BMPs in the fields of dentistry and orthopedics, research on methods of delivering BMPs, and their role in tissue regeneration. BMP has positive effects on bone grafts, and their calculated and timely use with other growth factors can provide extraordinary results in fractured or nonhealing bones. Use of BMP introduces new applications in the field of implantology and bone grafting. This review touches on a few unknown facts about BMP and this ever-changing field of research to improve human life.

Comprehensive analysis of TGF-ß and BMP receptor interactomes.

An immense number of cellular processes are initiated by cell surface serine/threonine kinase receptors belonging to the TGF-ß/BMP family. Subsequent downstream signalling cascades, as well as their crosstalk results in enormous specificity in terms of phenotypic outcome, e.g. proliferation, differentiation, migration or apoptosis. Such signalling diversity is achieved by the ability of receptors to interact with distinct proteins in a spatio-temporal manner. Following the cloning of the TGF-ß/BMP receptors a variety of different technologies were applied to identify such interacting proteins. Here we present a comprehensive survey of known interactome analyses, including our own data, on these receptors and discuss advantages and disadvantages of the applied technologies.

SNW1 is a critical regulator of spatial BMP activity, neural plate border formation, and neural crest specification in vertebrate embryos.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) gradients provide positional information to direct cell fate specification, such as patterning of the vertebrate ectoderm into neural, neural crest, and epidermal tissues, with precise borders segregating these domains. However, little is known about how BMP activity is regulated spatially and temporally during vertebrate development to contribute to embryonic patterning, and more specifically to neural crest formation. Through a large-scale in vivo functional screen in Xenopus for neural crest fate, we identified an essential regulator of BMP activity, SNW1. SNW1 is a nuclear protein known to regulate gene expression. Using antisense morpholinos to deplete SNW1 protein in both Xenopus and zebrafish embryos, we demonstrate that dorsally expressed SNW1 is required for neural crest specification, and this is independent of mesoderm formation and gastrulation morphogenetic movements. By exploiting a combination of immunostaining for phosphorylated Smad1 in Xenopus embryos and a BMP-dependent reporter transgenic zebrafish line, we show that SNW1 regulates a specific domain of BMP activity in the dorsal ectoderm at the neural plate border at post-gastrula stages. We use double in situ hybridizations and immunofluorescence to show how this domain of BMP activity is spatially positioned relative to the neural crest domain and that of SNW1 expression. Further in vivo and in vitro assays using cell culture and tissue explants allow us to conclude that SNW1 acts upstream of the BMP receptors. Finally, we show that the requirement of SNW1 for neural crest specification is through its ability to regulate BMP activity, as we demonstrate that targeted overexpression of BMP to the neural plate border is sufficient to restore neural crest formation in Xenopus SNW1 morphants. We conclude that through its ability to regulate a specific domain of BMP activity in the vertebrate embryo, SNW1 is a critical regulator of neural plate border formation and thus neural crest specification.

The function of FGF signaling in the lens placode.

Previous studies suggested that FGF signaling is important for lens formation. However, the times at which FGFs act to promote lens formation, the FGFs that are involved, the cells that secrete them and the mechanisms by which FGF signaling may promote lens formation are not known. We found that transcripts encoding several FGF ligands and the four classical FGF receptors are detectable in the lens-forming ectoderm at the time of lens induction. Conditional deletion of Fgfr1 and Fgfr2 from this tissue resulted in the formation of small lens rudiments that soon degenerated. Lens placodes lacking Fgfr1 and 2 were thinner than in wild-type embryos. Deletion of Fgfr2 increased cell death from the initiation of placode formation and concurrent deletion of Fgfr1 enhanced this phenotype. Fgfr1/2 conditional knockout placode cells expressed lower levels of proteins known to be regulated by FGF receptor signaling, but proteins known to be important for lens formation were present at normal levels in the remaining placode cells, including the transcription factors Pax6, Sox2 and FoxE3 and the lens-preferred protein αA-crystallin. Previous studies identified a genetic interaction between BMP and FGF signaling in lens formation and conditional deletion of Bmpr1a caused increased cell death in the lens placode, resulting in the formation of smaller lenses. In the present study, conditional deletion of both Bmpr1a and Fgfr2 increased cell death beyond that seen in Fgfr2(CKO) placodes and prevented lens formation. These results suggest that the primary role of autocrine or paracrine FGF signaling is to provide essential survival signals to lens placode cells. Because apoptosis was already increased at the onset of placode formation in Fgfr1/2 conditional knockout placode cells, FGF signaling was functionally absent during the period of lens induction by the optic vesicle. Since the expression of proteins required for lens formation was not altered in the knockout placode cells, we can conclude that FGF signaling from the optic vesicle is not required for lens induction.

Bone morphogenetic protein and bone metastasis, implication and therapeutic potential.

Bone metastasis is one of the most common and severe complications in advanced malignancies, particularly in the three leading cancers; breast cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. It is currently incurable and causes severe morbidities, including bone pain, hypercalcemia, pathological fracture, spinal cord compression and consequent paralysis. However, the mechanisms underlying the development of bone metastasis remain largely unknown. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) belong to the TGF-beta superfamily and are pluripotent factors involved in the regulation of embryonic development and postnatal homeostasis of various organs and tissues, by controlling cellular differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis. Since they are potent regulators for bone formation, there is an increasing interest to investigate BMPs and their roles in bone metastasis. BMPs have been implicated in various neoplasms, at both primary and secondary tumors, particularly skeletal metastasis. Recently studies have also suggested that BMP signaling and their antagonists play pivotal roles in bone metastasis. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of aberrations of BMPs which have been indicated in tumor progression, and particularly in the development of bone metastasis.