A healthy breakfast each and every day is important for students' motivation and achievement.

Breakfast is often cited as the most important meal of the day and vital for students' academic functioning at school. Although much research has linked students' breakfast consumption to better achievement, there has been debate about why and how breakfast has academic benefits. The present study of 648 Australian high school students investigated (a) the role of breakfast consumption and breakfast quality in students' self-reported motivation and their achievement in a science test, (b) the role of motivation in mediating the link between breakfast consumption and quality and students' achievement, and (c) the extent to which breakfast consumption effects are moderated by the quality of breakfast (e.g., more vegetables, fruit, dairy/protein, wholegrains, cereals, water; less sugary drinks, processed meat, fast take-away, unhealthy snack foods). Findings indicated that beyond the effects of personal, home, and classroom factors, breakfast consumption predicted higher adaptive motivation (p < .05), breakfast quality predicted lower maladaptive motivation (p < .05), and in turn, students' adaptive (positively, p < .01) and maladaptive (negatively, p < .01) motivation predicted their achievement. Moreover, adaptive motivation significantly mediated the relationship between breakfast consumption and achievement (p < .05). The effect of breakfast consumption was moderated by the quality of breakfast such that consuming a high-quality breakfast in the morning was associated with the highest levels of adaptive motivation (p < .01) and achievement (p < .05) later in the day. Findings have implications for educational practice and policy seeking to promote a healthy start to the school day to optimize students' motivation and achievement.

Effect of habitual breakfast skipping on information processing capacity, cortical response, and cognitive flexibility among medical collegiate - a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: Breakfast replenishes glucose homeostasis and provides other micro-nutrients for the normal functioning of the body after a long night at night. Habitually skipping breakfast leads not only to metabolic disturbances but also to neurocognitive impairment. Hence, the current study was carried out to study the effect of skipping breakfast on neurocognitive functions. METHODS: A 9-item breakfast questionnaire was distributed online to students for identifying habitual breakfast skippers from non-skippers based on inclusion criteria. Random blood glucose was noted and visual and auditory reaction time, critical flicker fusion frequency, and Stroop test were assessed in both groups to assess cognition. RESULTS: Forty one habitual breakfast skippers who met the inclusion criteria showed increased visual reaction time, and auditory reaction time indicating cognitive impairment. A significant reduction in the Stroop test was observed among the non-skipper group when compared to the skipper group. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that skipping breakfast diminishes neurocognitive functions like problem-solving, planning, judgment, information retention, and reasoning.

Breakfast Skipping and Declines in Cognitive Score Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Longitudinal Study of the HEIJO-KYO Cohort.

Previous studies outlined the correlation of adverse effects of breakfast skipping with cognitive function. However, the majority of these studies have focused on the short-term effects; to date, the long-term effect of breakfast skipping on cognitive function among older adults remains unclear. In this prospective cohort study of 712 older adults (mean age, 70.8 years), breakfast skipping was defined as skipping breakfast one or more times per week, and declines in cognitive score was defined as decreases in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of two or more in the observed period. During follow-up (median, 31 months), 135 of 712 participants developed declines in cognitive score. Poisson regression models revealed that the incidence rate for declines in cognitive score was significantly higher in breakfast skipper (n = 29) than breakfast eaters (n = 683) [incidence rate ratio (IRR), 2.10; 95% CI, 1.28-3.44]. Additional propensity score adjustments related to breakfast skipping from baseline parameters (age, gender, smoking and drinking status, BMI, household income, educated level, depressive symptoms, hypertension, diabetes, sleep medication, physical activity, caloric intake, and baseline cognition) produced consistent results (IRR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.33-3.68). Sensitivity analysis, when the cut-off value of decreases in MMSE score was changed to three points, suggested a significant and stronger association (IRR, 3.03; 95% CI, 1.72-5.35). Regarding daily intakes of food groups, breakfast skippers consumed a significantly lower amount of vegetables, fruits, and fish than breakfast eaters. In conclusion, our findings suggest that breakfast skipping is longitudinally associated with declines in cognitive score among older adults.

Association between eating behaviors and depressive symptoms in Chinese adults: a population-based cross-sectional study.

Eating behaviors are associated with health outcomes. However, data regarding the association between eating behaviors and depressive symptoms in Chinese adults are limited. We hypothesized that Chinese adults with problematic eating behaviors would likely have depressive symptoms compared to those with good eating behaviors. We included 1,998 participants (aged 25-68). Logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the association between eating behaviors and depressive symptoms. Eating behaviors were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Self-Rating Depression Scale. In the final adjusted model, the odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for depressive symptoms were 1.23 (0.99-1.53) and 1.30 (0.97-1.74) when a slow eating rate was compared to medium and fast eating rates, respectively and were 1.35 (1.08-1.68) and 1.40 (1.07-1.83) when breakfast consumers were compared to occasional consumers and skippers, respectively. Eating quickly and skipping breakfast were associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms. These results suggest that eating behaviors may affect mental health in adults.

Breakfast Consumption Suppresses Appetite but Does Not Increase Daily Energy Intake or Physical Activity Energy Expenditure When Compared with Breakfast Omission in Adolescent Girls Who Habitually Skip Breakfast: A 7-Day Randomised Crossover Trial.

With concerns that adolescent girls often skip breakfast, this study compared the effects of breakfast consumption versus breakfast omission on free-living physical activity (PA) energy expenditure (PAEE) and dietary intakes among adolescent girls classified as habitual breakfast skippers. The participants went through two 7-day conditions in a trial with a crossover design: daily standardised breakfast consumption (energy content: 25% of resting metabolic rate) before 09:00 (BC) and daily breakfast omission (no energy-providing nutrients consumed) until 10:30 (BO). Free-living PAEE, dietary intakes, and perceived appetite, tiredness, and energy levels were assessed. Analyses were linear mixed models. Breakfast manipulation did not affect PAEE or PA duration. Daily fibre intake was higher (p = 0.005; d = 1.31), daily protein intake tended to be higher (p = 0.092; d = 0.54), post-10:30 carbohydrate intake tended to be lower (p = 0.096; d = 0.41), and pre-10:30 hunger and fullness were lower and higher, respectively (p ≤ 0.065; d = 0.33-1.01), in BC versus BO. No other between-condition differences were found. Breakfast-skipping adolescent girls do not compensate for an imbalance in energy intake caused by breakfast consumption versus omission through subsequent changes in PAEE but may increase their carbohydrate intakes later in the day to partially compensate for breakfast omission. Furthermore, breakfast can make substantial contributions to daily fibre intake among adolescent girls.

Influencia del desayuno sobre la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea y el estado ponderal en alumnas de Magisterio de Madrid / Influence of breakfast on adherence to the Mediterranean diet and weight status among student teachers in Madrid

Introducción: la ingesta regular de una calidad de desayuno (CDy) “completa” se ha asociado con una elección de alimentos más saludable a lo largo del día, así como la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea (ADM) se ha relacionado con una mejora del estado de salud. Objetivo: evaluar en una población universitaria la CDy y establecer la relación con la ADM y el estado ponderal (EP). Métodos: estudio transversal con una muestra de 490 universitarias. Se empleó un registro semanal de alimentos. Se establecieron 5 categorías de desayuno, adaptadas de los criterios EnKid-FEN: tres en función de grupos básicos (lácteos, cereales y frutas): “mala” (no desayuna o no incluye ninguno), “insuficiente” (incluye al menos uno) y “mejorable” (incluye al menos dos); y dos en función de grupos básicos, de otros grupos adicionales y de la energía: “buena” (incluye principalmente los tres grupos básicos y puede incluir otro grupo adicional, en cuyo caso la energía debe ser < 20 % de la diaria) y “completa” (incluye los tres grupos básicos más otro grupo adicional, con una energía ≥ 20 % de la diaria). Asimismo, se computó el tiempo empleado en desayunar. La ADM se obtuvo mediante el test Kidmed. Para el establecimiento de las categorías del EP se utilizó el IMC. (AU)

Introduction: the intake of a “complete” breakfast quality (BQ) has been associated with a healthier food choice throughout the day, as Mediterranean diet adherence (MDA) has been associated with an improvement in the health status. Objective: to assess BQ in a university population, and to establish its relationship with MDA and weight status (WS). Methods: this was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 490 university students. A weekly breakfast food registry was used. Five categories were established, according to the adaptation of the EnKid-FEN criteria, three according to the basic groups (dairy, cereals, and fruits): “Bad” (does not have breakfast or does not include any), “Insufficient” (includes at least one) and “Improvable” (includes at least two); and two depending on the basic groups, other additional groups different from the previous ones, and the energy consumed: “Good” (includes mainly the three basic groups, and can include another additional group, in which case the sum of energy is < 20 % of the daily energy) and “Complete” (includes the three basic groups plus another additional group with a sum of energy ≥ 20 % of daily requirement). In addition, the time spent eating breakfast was computed. The assessment of MDA was carried out using the Kidmed questionnaire. BMI was used to establish the WS categories. (AU)

[Influence of breakfast on adherence to the Mediterranean diet and weight status among student teachers in Madrid]. / Influencia del desayuno sobre la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea y el estado ponderal en alumnas de Magisterio de Madrid.

INTRODUCTION: Introduction: the intake of a "complete" breakfast quality (BQ) has been associated with a healthier food choice throughout the day, as Mediterranean diet adherence (MDA) has been associated with an improvement in the health status. Objective: to assess BQ in a university population, and to establish its relationship with MDA and weight status (WS). Methods: this was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 490 university students. A weekly breakfast food registry was used. Five categories were established, according to the adaptation of the EnKid-FEN criteria, three according to the basic groups (dairy, cereals, and fruits): "Bad" (does not have breakfast or does not include any), "Insufficient" (includes at least one) and "Improvable" (includes at least two); and two depending on the basic groups, other additional groups different from the previous ones, and the energy consumed: "Good" (includes mainly the three basic groups, and can include another additional group, in which case the sum of energy is < 20 % of the daily energy) and "Complete" (includes the three basic groups plus another additional group with a sum of energy ≥ 20 % of daily requirement). In addition, the time spent eating breakfast was computed. The assessment of MDA was carried out using the Kidmed questionnaire. BMI was used to establish the WS categories. Results: at breakfast the students mostly consumed dairy products (82.4 %) and cereals (75.3 %) compared to fruits (25.7 %). A total of 16.9 % had a "Good or Complete" BQ, 25.7 % had a "High" MDA, and 11.2 % had "Overweight-Obesity". A significant association was shown between BQ and MDA, as a "Bad" o "Complete" BQ implies a greater probability of having a "Low" (53.8 %) o "High" (57.7 %) MDA, respectively. In addition, significant differences were shown in breakfast time according to BQ and MDA, as those students who spent more than 15 minutes for breakfast presented a greater probability of having a "Complete" BQ and "High" MDA when compared to students who ate a shorter breakfast. No significant differences were seen in WS according to BQ or MDA. Conclusion: in this study BQ and the time spent at breakfast are related to quality, which is closely linked to the degree of MDA, which highlights the importance of training and educating this population in healthy eating habits, and of approaching a healthier diet through breakfast quality.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Introducción: la ingesta regular de una calidad de desayuno (CDy) "completa" se ha asociado con una elección de alimentos más saludable a lo largo del día, así como la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea (ADM) se ha relacionado con una mejora del estado de salud. Objetivo: evaluar en una población universitaria la CDy y establecer la relación con la ADM y el estado ponderal. Métodos: estudio transversal con una muestra de 490 universitarias. Se empleó un registro semanal de alimentos. Se establecieron 5 categorías de desayuno, adaptadas de los criterios EnKid-FEN: tres en función de grupos básicos (lácteos, cereales y frutas): "mala" (no desayuna o no incluye ninguno), "insuficiente" (incluye al menos uno) y "mejorable" (incluye al menos dos); y dos en función de grupos básicos, de otros grupos adicionales y de la energía: "buena" (incluye principalmente los tres grupos básicos y puede incluir otro grupo adicional, en cuyo caso la energía debe ser < 20 % de la diaria) y "completa" (incluye los tres grupos básicos más otro grupo adicional, con una energía ≥ 20 % de la diaria). Se computó el tiempo empleado en desayunar. La ADM se obtuvo mediante el test Kidmed. Para el establecimiento de las categorías del EP se utilizó el IMC. Resultados: las estudiantes en el desayuno consumen mayoritariamente lácteos (82,4 %) y cereales (75,3 %) frente a las frutas (25,7 %). Un 16,9 % realiza una CDy "buena o completa", el 25,7 % presentan una ADM "alta" y el 11,2 % presentan "sobrepeso-obesidad". Se observó una asociación significativa entre la CDy y la ADM, ya que realizar una CDy "mala" o "completa" implicaba una mayor probabilidad de tener una ADM "baja" (53,8 %) o una ADM "alta" (57,7 %), respectivamente. Se observaron diferencias significativas entre los tiempos con respecto a la CDy y la ADM, porque aquellos estudiantes que dedicaban > 15 minutos a desayunar tenían una mayor probabilidad de realizar una CDy "completa" y de tener una ADM "alta" frente a aquellos que tardaban menos. No existían diferencias significativas de EP con respecto a la CDy y la ADM. Conclusión: una CDy "completa", con una duración superior a 15minutos, estaría asociada a presentar una mayor ADM, lo que pone de manifiesto la importancia de formar y educar en hábitos alimentarios saludables a esta población y de aproximarse a una dieta más saludable a través del desayuno.

Effects of a Rice-Based Diet in Korean Adolescents Who Habitually Skip Breakfast: A Randomized, Parallel Group Clinical Trial.

During adolescence, healthy eating habits are important, and regular meal intake has an especially positive effect on future health. However, the rate of skipping breakfast has gradually increased. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the positive effects of a rice-based breakfast in Korean adolescents who usually skip breakfast. In this open parallel-group, randomized controlled trial, 105 middle and high school students aged 12-18 years who habitually skipped breakfast were recruited. They were randomly divided into three groups: the rice meal group (RMG, n = 35), wheat meal group (WMG, n = 35), and general meal group (GMG, n = 35). The RMG and WMG received a rice-based breakfast and wheat-based breakfast, respectively, for 12 weeks. After a 12-week intervention, the body fat mass (p < 0.05) and body mass index (p < 0.05) in the RMG were significantly lower than those in the other two groups, and the stress score was also significantly lower in the RMG (p < 0.05). Moreover, after the intervention, in the RMG only, compared to baseline levels, the relative theta (RT) wave activity significantly decreased in eight electrode sites, and the relative alpha (RA) wave activity increased significantly. Eating a rice-based breakfast has positive effects on body fat accumulation and cognitive function in Korean adolescents. Furthermore, a rice-based breakfast plan that is preferred by adolescents should be developed to assist them in developing healthy eating habits.

And yet Again: Having Breakfast Is Positively Associated with Lower BMI and Healthier General Eating Behavior in Schoolchildren.

Given the high prevalence of childhood overweight, school-based programs aiming at nutritional behavior may be a good starting point for community-based interventions. Therefore, we investigated associations between school-related meal patterns and weight status in 1215 schoolchildren. Anthropometry was performed on-site in schools. Children reported their meal habits, and parents provided family-related information via questionnaires. Associations between nutritional behavior and weight status were estimated using hierarchical linear and logistic regression. Analyses were adjusted for age, socio-economic status, school type, migration background, and parental weight status. Having breakfast was associated with a lower BMI-SDS (ßadj = -0.51, p = 0.004) and a lower risk of being overweight (ORadj = 0.30, p = 0.009), while having two breakfasts resulting in stronger associations (BMI-SDS: ßadj = -0.66, p < 0.001; risk of overweight: ORadj = 0.22, p = 0.001). Likewise, children who regularly skipped breakfast on school days showed stronger associations (BMI-SDS: ß = 0.49, p < 0.001; risk of overweight: OR = 3.29, p < 0.001) than children who skipped breakfast only occasionally (BMI-SDS: ß = 0.43, p < 0.001; risk of overweight: OR = 2.72, p = 0.032). The associations persisted after controlling for parental SES and weight status. Therefore, our data confirm the school setting as a suitable starting point for community-based interventions and may underline the necessity of national programs providing free breakfast and lunch to children.

Trajectories of Eating Behaviour Changes during Adolescence.

Adolescence represents a critical transition phase during which individuals acquire eating behaviours that can track into adulthood. This study aims to characterise trends in eating behaviours throughout adolescence by investigating the presence of sub-groups of individuals presenting distinct trajectories of vegetable and fruit, sugary beverage, breakfast and fast-food consumption. Data from 744 MATCH study Canadian participants followed from 11 to 18 Years old (2013-2019) were included in the analyses. Participants reported how often they ate breakfast and consumed vegetables and fruits, sugary beverages and fast foods. Trajectories of eating behaviours over seven years were identified using group-based multi-trajectory modelling. For girls, three different groups were identified, namely 'stable food intake with a decline in daily breakfast consumption' (39.9%), 'moderate food intake and worsening in overall eating behaviours' (38.0%) and 'stable high food intake' (22.1%). For boys, five different groups were identified, namely 'low food intake with stable daily breakfast consumption' (27.3%), 'breakfast-skippers and increasing fast food intake' (27.1%), 'low food intake with a decline in daily breakfast consumption' (23.9%), 'high food intake with worsening of eating behaviours' (13.3%) and 'average food intake with consistently high breakfast consumption' (8.4%). Eating behaviours evolve through various distinct trajectories and sub-group-specific strategies may be required to promote healthy eating behaviours among adolescents.

Breakfast: A Crucial Meal for Adolescents' Cognitive Performance According to Their Nutritional Status. The Cogni-Action Project.

This study aimed to determine whether pupils who have breakfast just before a cognitive demand, do not regularly skip breakfast, and consume a high-quality breakfast present higher cognitive performance than those who do not; furthermore, to establish differences according to their nutritional status. In this study, 1181 Chilean adolescents aged 10-14 years participated. A global cognitive score was computed through eight tasks, and the body mass index z-score (BMIz) was calculated using a growth reference for school-aged adolescents. The characteristics of breakfast were self-reported. Analyses of covariance were performed to determine differences in cognitive performance according to BMIz groups adjusted to sex, peak height velocity, physical fitness global score, and their schools. A positive association was found in adolescents' cognitive performance when they had breakfast just before cognitive tasks, did not regularly skip breakfast, presented at least two breakfast quality components, and included dairy products. No significant differences were found between breakfast components, including cereal/bread and fruits/fruit juice. Finally, pupils who were overweight/obese who declared that they skipped breakfast regularly presented a lower cognitive performance than their normal-BMIz peers. These findings suggest that adolescents who have breakfast just prior to a cognitive demand and regularly have a high quality breakfast have better cognitive performance than those who do not. Educative nutritional strategies should be prioritized, especially in "breakfast skippers" adolescents living with overweight/obesity.

Cross-Sectional Associations Between Mothers and Children's Breakfast Routine-The Feel4Diabetes-Study.

Positive influences of family members have been associated with a high probability of children's daily breakfast consumption. Therefore, the aim of this study was to scrutinize the association of breakfast routines between mothers and their children. The baseline data of the Feel4Diabetes-study was obtained in 9760 children (49.05% boys)-mother pairs in six European countries. A parental self-reported questionnaire gauging the frequency of breakfast consumption and of breakfast´ foods and beverages consumption was used. Agreement in routines of mothers and their children's breakfast consumption was analyzed in sex-specific crosstabs. The relationship of breakfast routine and food groups' consumption between mothers and their children was assessed with analysis of covariance. The highest proportion of children who always consumed breakfast were those whose mothers always consumed it. Children consuming breakfast regularly had a higher intake of milk or unsweetened dairy products and all kind of cereal products (low fiber and whole-grain) than occasional breakfast consumers (p < 0.05). The strong similarity between mothers and children suggests a transfer of breakfast routine from mothers to their children, as a high proportion of children who usually consume breakfast were from mothers also consuming breakfast. All breakfast foods and beverages consumption frequencies were similar between children and their mothers.

The role of family meal frequency in common mental disorders in children and adolescents over eight months of follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the influence of family meal frequency on the occurrence of common mental disorders (CMD) in children and adolescents over eight months of follow-up. DESIGN: Data from this longitudinal study were derived from the PAAPAS-Parents, Students, Community Health Agents, and Teachers for Healthy Eating-community trial. CMD were evaluated using the General Health Questionnaire. Frequency of family meals (breakfast and dinner) was categorized as "breakfast and dinner regularly with the family", "at least breakfast or dinner regularly with the family", and "does not have any meal regularly with the family." The effect of family meal frequency on CMD was analyzed using generalized estimation equations with log-binomial models for repeated measures. SETTING: This study was conducted in public schools (N = 18) of Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016. PARTICIPANTS: Children (aged 9-11 years) and adolescents (aged 12-17 years) from the fifth and sixth grades (N = 2,743). RESULTS: These findings suggested that regular family meals were a protective factor for mental health. The adjusted relative risk of CMD was 0.75 (95% confidence interval = 0.69-0.83) for those who had two family meals regularly and 0.87 (95% confidence interval = 0.77-0.97) for those who had only one regular family meal, compared to students who had no regular family meals. CONCLUSIONS: Potential strategies that educate and encourage families about the mental health benefits of eating regular meals together must be explored and implemented.

Skipping Breakfast and Subsequent Overweight/Obesity in Children: A Nationwide Prospective Study of 2.5- to 13-year-old Children in Japan.

BACKGROUND: Few longitudinal studies have examined the association between skipping breakfast and overweight/obesity in pre-elementary school children. Furthermore, this association may differ between boys and girls. The main objective of this study was to assess whether skipping breakfast in early childhood was associated with later incidence of overweight/obesity, with stratification by gender, using data on children aged 2.5 to 13 years old in The Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st century. METHODS: We examined the associations between skipping breakfast at 2.5 years old and overweight/obesity at 2.5 (n = 34,649), 4.5 (n = 35,472), 7 (n = 31,266), 10 (n = 31,211), and 13 (n = 28,772) years old. To estimate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of overweight/obesity by each age (2.5, 4.5, 7, 10, and 13 years), a multivariate logistic regression was used adjusting for time-invariant and time-varying covariates. RESULTS: At the age of 2.5 years, 11.0% of boys and 12.2% of girls were skipping breakfast. In fully adjusted models, skipping breakfast at 2.5 years old was not significantly associated with overweight/obesity at 2.5 and 4.5 years old, but was significantly associated with overweight/obesity at 7 and 10 years old, in both sexes. Skipping breakfast at 2.5 years old was significantly associated with overweight/obesity at 13 years old in boys (OR 1.38; 95% CI, 1.17-1.62), but not in girls (OR 1.21; 95% CI, 0.98-1.49). CONCLUSIONS: Skipping breakfast in early childhood increased overweight/obesity in later childhood, but there may be gender differences in the association.

Appetite Control across the Lifecourse: The Acute Impact of Breakfast Drink Quantity and Protein Content. The Full4Health Project.

Understanding the mechanisms of hunger, satiety and how nutrients affect appetite control is important for successful weight management across the lifecourse. The primary aim of this study was to describe acute appetite control across the lifecourse, comparing age groups (children, adolescents, adults, elderly), weight categories, genders and European sites (Scotland and Greece). Participants (n = 391) consumed four test drinks, varying in composition (15% (normal protein, NP) and 30% (high protein, HP) of energy from protein) and quantity (based on 100% basal metabolic rate (BMR) and 140% BMR), on four separate days in a double-blind randomized controlled study. Ad libitum energy intake (EI), subjective appetite and biomarkers of appetite and metabolism (adults and elderly only) were measured. The adults' appetite was significantly greater than that of the elderly across all drink types (p < 0.004) and in response to drink quantities (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences in EI between age groups, weight categories, genders or sites. Concentrations of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were significantly greater in the elderly than the adults (p < 0.001). Ghrelin and fasting leptin concentrations differed significantly between weight categories, genders and sites (p < 0.05), while GLP-1 and PYY concentrations differed significantly between genders only (p < 0.05). Compared to NP drinks, HP drinks significantly increased postprandial GLP-1 and PYY (p < 0.001). Advanced age was concomitant with reduced appetite and elevated anorectic hormone release, which may contribute to the development of malnutrition. In addition, appetite hormone concentrations differed between weight categories, genders and geographical locations.

Effect of a nutritional education intervention on breakfast consumption among preparatory school students in Egypt.

OBJECTIVES: The current study evaluates the effect of nutritional education based on Pender's health promotion model on breakfast consumption behavior among Egyptian school students. METHODS: A pre-posttest intervention study through a nutritional education message based on Pender's health promotion model was carried on 244 preparatory school students. Data were collected using questionnaires and measuring weight, height and blood pressure before and after educational intervention was conducted to the intervention group. RESULTS: The educational intervention was having a significant positive effect on all components of the model in the intervention group, the mean breakfast consumption, frequency of non-skipping and healthy breakfast per week (p ≤ 0.05). Overweight and obesity and higher blood pressure were significantly present among breakfast skippers. CONCLUSIONS: The nutritional educational intervention based on Pender's health promotion model was effective in increasing the frequency of healthy breakfast among the school students. There is a need to develop evidence-based policies, community, family, and school-based interventions to promote healthy lifestyle and nutritional behavior among adolescents for a better quality of life.

Skipping breakfast, poor sleep quality, and Internet usage and their relation with unhappiness in Japanese adolescents.

Subjective happiness is often regarded as a major life goal. Although Japan is an economically powerful country, the level of subjective well-being reported among Japanese adolescents is lower than in other countries. We aimed to investigate the lifestyle factors related to unhappiness in Japanese adolescents. We collected data through the 2017-2018 Lifestyle Survey of Adolescents, a nationally representative cross-sectional study enrolled in randomly selected junior and senior high schools throughout Japan. We assessed the prevalence of subjective unhappiness in junior and senior high school students according to school life factors and daily lifestyle habits. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to examine the associations between these factors and unhappiness. A total of 64,329 students were included in the sample (mean age 15.7 years, 53.9% boys). The average prevalence of unhappiness was 10.2%. The logistic regression analyses indicated that unhappiness was strongly associated with being male and with engaging in unhealthy lifestyle behaviors such as not having breakfast, poor sleep quality, and some problematic Internet usage. Although the prevalence of unhappiness was significantly higher among current smokers and alcohol drinkers, these behaviors were not associated with unhappiness in the multivariable logistic regression analysis. Unhappiness among Japanese adolescents appears to be strongly related to how they spend their daily life. We therefore consider it desirable for school officials to educate students on the importance of happiness and lifestyle factors conducive to happiness.

Breakfast consumption among Saudi primary-school children relative to sex and socio-demographic factors.

BACKGROUND: Breakfast is an important meal that provides essential nutrients and energy. However, few comprehensive studies have reported breakfast habits and related behaviors among Saudi children. This study investigated breakfast consumption patterns and the associations of socio-demographic variables with daily breakfast intake among Saudi children. METHODS: A multistage stratified cluster random sampling technique was used to select 1051 elementary school boys and girls in Riyadh. Body weight and height were measured and body mass index (BMI) was computed. The breakfast eating habits and behaviors were assessed using a specifically designed self-reported questionnaire that was completed by the children's parents. RESULTS: More than 79% of children skipped daily breakfast, with no significant sex difference. Children in private schools consumed breakfast more frequently than those attending public schools. Multivariate analyses showed that boys in private schools had a significantly higher intake of breakfast than that in boys in public schools, yet, boys in public schools had significantly higher BMI than boys in private schools. Using logistic regression while adjusting for confounders showed insignificant effect for parent education. Among breakfast eaters, spread cheese sandwiches were consumed most frequently, followed by fried egg sandwiches and breakfast cereals. Full-fat milk, tea with milk, water, and fruit juice were the most consumed drinks. Girls consumed significantly more fresh fruits during breakfast than did boys. Mothers prepared breakfast at home most of the time (84.5%). Parents appeared mostly satisfied with the breakfast consumed by their child at home and placed high importance on breakfast compared to lunch or dinner. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of school children who ate daily breakfast at home was low, which may have implications for children's school performance. Effort is needed to promote daily breakfast consumption among Saudi school children and to introduce appropriate interventions aimed at promoting daily breakfast consumption among Saudi children.

Why do we eat cereal but not lamb chops at breakfast? Investigating Americans' beliefs about breakfast foods.

Healthy breakfast consumption has a multitude of positive benefits. However, typical American breakfasts are notoriously unhealthy. We hypothesize that the resistance to include nutritious foods at breakfast is due in part to misconceptions about what "breakfast" should be. Consistent with this proposal, results from three studies (N = 1097) suggest that American adults perceive typical breakfast foods as particularly well suited for breakfast and believe that more nutritious alternatives consumed at lunch or dinner are less appropriate for breakfast. As a result, people are unwilling to add more nutritious alternatives to their breakfast repertoire. To counter this rigidity, we devised an intervention passage emphasizing that (1) many foods became breakfast staples because of intensive marketing campaigns, and that (2) people in other cultures readily include lunch or dinner foods on their breakfast plate. This approach effectively revised people's beliefs about breakfast foods, and improved their motivation to adopt a healthier breakfast diet. Our findings demonstrate the power of a conceptually rich framework in undermining mistaken beliefs and boosting healthy eating behaviors.